BIOLOGY 
LIBRARr 

G 


THE  AMERICAN 
NATURAL  HISTORY 

FIRESIDE    EDITION 


VOLUME  I— MAMMALS 


"The  concise  and  precise  phraseology  of  science, 
admirable  though  it  be  for  the  use  of  those  who  have 
been  trained  to  employ  it,  is  to  others  not  only  mis- 
leading, but  it  may  be  repulsive." — G.  BROWN  GOODE. 

"The  highest  type  of  scientific  writing  is  that  which 
sets  forth  useful  scientific  facts,  in  language  which  is 
interesting,  and  easily  understood  by  the  millions  who 
read." — L.  A.  MANN. 


Painted  by  Carl  Rungius. 

THE   AMERICAN   MOOSE,   IN   NEW  BRUNSWICK. 


THE  AMERICAN 

NATURAL  HISTORY 


A  FOUNDATION   OF   USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE   OF 
THE  HIGHER  ANIMALS  OF   NORTH  AMERICA 


BY 

WILLIAM   T.  HORN  AD  AY,  Sc.D., 

DIRECTOR   OF   THE   NEW    YORK    ZOOLOGICAL   PARK 
AUTHOR   OF    "TWO   YEARS   IN    THE   JUNGLE,"    "OUR    VANISHING    WILD    LIFE,"    ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  225  ORIGINAL  DRAWINGS  BY  BEARD,  RUNGIUS, 
SAWYER,  AND  OTHERS,  151  PHOTOGRAPHS,  CHIEFLY  BY  SANBORN, 
KELLER,  AND  UNDERWOOD,  AND  WITH  NUMEROUS  CHARTS  AND  MAPS 


WITH    SIXTEEN    PLATES    IN    COLOR 


FIRESIDE  EDITION 


VOLUME  I  — MAMMALS 


NEW   YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 
1914 


}  °( ' 

. 


Copyright,  1904,  by 
WILLIAM   T.    HORNADAY 


First  Publication,   April,   1904 


Copyright,   1914,  by 
WILLIAM   T.    HORNADAY 


ireside  Edition  published  September,   1914 


SPECIAL  NOTICE 

The  publishers  hereby  give  warning  that 
the  unauthorized  use  of  illustrations,  charts, 
or  maps  from  this  book  is  expressly  forbidden. 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRESIDE  EDITION 

THE  views  entertained  by  the  author  and  publisher  as  they  were 
represented  by  the  first  edition  of  the  "American  Natural  His- 
tory" have  been  materially  strengthened  by  the  lapse  of  time.  In 
1904  we  believed  that  the  time  was  ripe  for  the  publication  of  a 
work  which,  while  scientifically  accurate,  would  convey  much  prac- 
tical information,  and  be  read  through  for  entertainment  before 
being  placed  upon  the  shelf  for  reference.  The  highest  compliment 
that  the  author  ever  received  regarding  the  original  volume  was  the 
assurance  from  a  young  lady  that  she  had  "read  every  page  of  it, 
from  cover  to  cover." 

During  the  past  ten  years,  the  conditions  affecting  the  wild  life 
of  North  America  have  swiftly  changed.  The  total  amount  of 
scientific  facts  that  have  been  accumulated  by  the  technologists, 
and  stored  up  for  future  reference,  is  enormous.  Scientific  "spe- 
cialization" has  become  such  an  educational  mania  that  the  old- 
fashioned  "all-round"  naturalists  now  are  few  and  lonesome.  At 
the  same  time,  however,  the  need  for  the  dissemination  of  prac- 
tical every-day  knowledge  regarding  our  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes  never  was  so  great  as  now.  The  wholesale  destruction 
of  bird  life,  with  the  enormously  increased  cost  of  living  that  has 
come  as  a  natural  and  inexorable  result,  renders  it  highly  necessary 
that  people  generally  should  have  a  chance  to  recognize  their 
friends  and  their  enemies  in  the  animal  world.  To-day  there  are 
millions  of  American  producers  and  consumers  who  do  not  know 
their  best  friends,  and  who  think,  for  example,  that  a  quail  is  val- 
uable only  as  so  many  ounces  of  edible  meat  for  the  table. 


vi  PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRESIDE    EDITION 

This  work  was  designed  to  afford  the  general  reader,  the  parent, 
the  teacher,  and  also  young  people  an  opportunity  to  obtain  a  speak- 
ing acquaintance,  on  a  scientific  basis,  with  the  best  representa- 
tives of  the  living  vertebrate  animal  forms  of  North  America. 
The  great  multiplication  of  species  and  geographic  races  that  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  few  years  renders  necessary  this  new 
edition  of  the  original  work.  A  glance. at  the  number  of  species 
and  races  in  the  Order  of  Gnawing  Animals  is  sufficient  to  convince 
the  average  reader  of  the  necessity  of  a  general  view,  and  the 
impossibility  of  a  complete  acquaintance  with  even  our  own  quad- 
rupeds. 

The  time  was  when  a  diligent  student  could  at  least  know  every 
mammalian  species  by  name;  but  that  time  went  by  long  ago. 
The  gulf  that  now  is  fixed  between  the  zoological  investigators  and 
the  general  zoologist  is  becoming  wider  and  deeper  day  by  day. 
Consider  the  possibilities  for  mastering  the  identity  of  784  species 
and  453  subspecies  of  the  Order  of  Gnawing  Animals  (Rodents). 

We  must  accept  the  fact  that  in  the  scientific  determination 
of  the  precise  status  of  a  fauna,  subspecies  are  necessary,  even 
though  it  is  not  possible  for  the  layman  to  recognize  them.  I  am 
convinced  that  to-day  a  great  many  subspecies  exist  on  very  nar- 
row grounds;  but  we  are  concerned  with  only  a  very  few  of  them. 
Let  us  become  acquainted  with  the  important  forms,  and  the  types 
of  the  groups  that  are  most  worth  knowing. 

In  reckoning  up  numbers  of  species  and  subspecies  I  have 
accepted  Dr.  D.  G.  Elliot's  "Check  List  of  North  American  Mam- 
mals" (1905)  as  the  best  authority,  and  quite  sufficient  for  the 
purposes  of  this  work,  even  though  a  few  forms  have  been  added 
to  our  fauna  since  its  publication.  For  the  classification  of  the 
mammals  of  the  world,  living  and  extinct,  the  highest  authority 
and  literally  the  last  word,  is  the  "Age  of  Mammals,"  by  Professor 
Henry  Fairfield  Osborn.  The  scientific  student  is  advised  to  ac- 
cept and  follow  his  scheme  of  classification. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRESIDE    EDITION  vii 

In  view  of  the  constant,  and  often  exasperating,  changes  that 
are  being  made  in  the  Latin  names  of  animals,  I  regard  it  as  useless 
and  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  keep  up  with  them;  and  therefore 
I  have  made  no  changes  whatever  in  the  names  that  were  originally 
chosen  with  great  care  in  the  first  composition  of  this  work. 

Both  the  author  and  the  publishers  thank  the  public  and  the 
press  most  gratefully  for  the  signal  marks  of  approval  with  which 
this  work  has  been  received.  It  is  that  approval  which  has  made 
this  four- volume  edition  seem  worth  while.  The  author,  by  numer- 
ous amplifications  and  by  substantial  additions  in  various  direc- 
tions, gladly  avails  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  bring  the  work 
down  to  date,  in  all  particulars  save  a  few  that  will  not  seriously 
affect  the  progress  either  of  the  general  reader  or  of  the  student. 

W.  T.  H. 

UNIVERSITY  HEIGHTS, 
NEW  YORK  CITY. 


CONTENTS 

VOLUME   I— MAMMALS 

INTRODUCTION  xix 


PAGE 


CHAPTER  I 

ORDERS  OF  MAMMALS 3 

CHAPTER  II 

ORDER  OF  APES  AND  MONKEYS PRIMATES  9 

ANTHROPOID  APES 11 

OLD  WORLD  MONKEYS  AND  BABOONS 26 

NEW  WORLD  MONKEYS 30 

FAMILY  OF  MARMOSETS 35 

SUBORDER  OF  LEMURS 37 

CHAPTER  III 

ORDER  OF  FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS  ....    FERAE  40 

CAT  FAMILY 40 

DOG  FAMILY 53 

NORTH  AMERICAN  FOXES 58 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

J-AGE 

SMALL  FUR-BEARERS 66 

MARTEN  FAMILY 67 

BEAR  FAMILY " 82 

IMPORTANT  BEARS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 87 

RACCOON  FAMILY 109 

CHAPTER  IV 

ORDER  OF  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS      .      .      .     PINNIPEDIA  112 

SEA-LION  FAMILY 115 

REVIEW  OF  FUR-SEAL  HISTORY 126 

CENSUS  OF  FUR  SEALS  ON  THE  PRIBILOF  ISLANDS  IN  1913    .      .  136 

SEAL  FAMILY 137 

WALRUS  FAMILY 141 

CHAPTER  V 

ORDER  OF  MOLES  AND  SHREWS   .      .      .       INSECTIVORA  148 

MOLE  FAMILY 151 

SHREW  FAMILY 154 

CHAPTER  VI 

ORDER  OF  BATS CHIROPTERA  156 

FAMILY  OF  LEAF-NOSED  BATS 163 

FAMILY  OF  FREE-TAILED  BATS 168 

FAMILY  OF  COMMON  BATS  171 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

FAMILY  OF  FALSE  VAMPIRES 174 

FAMILY  OF  HORSESHOE  BATS 174 

FAMILY  OF  FRUIT-EATING  BATS 174 

CHAPTER  VII 

ORDER  OF  GNAWING  ANIMALS     .  GLIRES,  OR  RODENTS  180 

SQUIRREL  FAMILY 181 

SEWELLEL  FAMILY 

BEAVER  FAMILY 

FAMILY  OF  MICE  AND  RATS 218 

IMPORTANT  GROUPS  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  MICE  AND  RATS  .      .  222 

CHEEK-POUCH  MICE  AND  RATS 240 

JUMPING  MOUSE  FAMILY 243 

POCKET  GOPHER  FAMILY 245 

TREE-RATS  AND  WATER-RATS 249 

PORCUPINE  FAMILY     .            252 

VlSCACHAS  AND  CHINCHILLAS ' 254 

AGOUTI  AND  PACA 257 

CAPYBARA  AND  CAVY 259 

PIKA  FAMILY 261 

HARE  AND  RABBIT  FAMILY                                                              .  262 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLOR  PLATES 

American  Moose  in  New  Brunswick Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Gorilla 14 

Alaskan  Brown  Bear 92 

Fur  Seals  on  St.  Paul  Island  .  124 


FULL-PAGE  PLATES 

PAGE 

Female  Chimpanzee,  " Susie" 5 

Landscape  Chart  of  the  Orders  of  Living  Mammals     ......  7 

A  Fight  in  the  Tree-Tops 19 

Female  Orang-Utan  and  Young 23 

Jaguar 41 

Puma,  or  Mountain  "Lion" 45 

The  Wolverine 75 

Common  Skunk 79 

Little  Spotted  Skunk 79 

A  Grizzly  Bear  at  Home 95 

American  Black  Bear 99 

Glacier  Bear 103 

Inland  White  Bear 107 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Steller  Sea-Lions 121 

The  Harp  Seal    .      . 133 

The  Ribbon  Seal 139 

The  Pacific  Walrus 143 

i 

Bornean  Naked  Bat 157 

Fruit-Eating  Bats,  or  Flying  "Foxes" 175 

Prairie-4' Dog"  Burrow 207 

American  Beavers  and  Their  Work 213 

The  Families  of  Native  Mice  and  Rats,  Illustrated  by  Skins  of 

Typical  Species 223 

Diagram  of  the  Hare  and  Rabbit  Family  in  North  America  .      .      .  263 
TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Skeletons  of  Man  and  Gorilla 12 

Chimpanzees  and  Orang-Utans  Dining  in  the  New  York  Zoological 

Park 15 

A  Dressed-Up  Chimpanzee 17 

Japanese  Red-Faced  Monkey 26 

Diana  Monkey 27 

Dead  Gelada  Baboon 28 

White-Throated  Sapajou 31 

Black-Faced  Spider  Monkey 32 

Common  Marmoset 36 

The  Ruffed  Lemur 38 

Canada  Lynx -.  49 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 


PAGE 


The  Ocelot          51 

Bay  Lynx 52 

Gray  Wolf 54 

Coyote 57 

Red  Fox 60 

Black,  or  "Silver"  Fox 61 

The  Arctic  Fox 64 

Gray  Fox 65 

Fisher 69 

Otter 69 

Marten 69 

Mink 69 

Black-Footed  Ferret 72 

The  Badger 81 

Polar  Bear 89 

Spectacled  Bear 106 

The  Raccoon 110 

Harbor  Seal 114 

Steller  Sea-Lion 114 

Pacific  Walrus          114 

California  Sea-Lion 117 

Annual  Winter  Migration  of  the  Fur-Seal  Herd 125 

Head  of  Hooded  Seal 138 

Young  Atlantic  Walrus .      .      .      .    / ,      ,  146 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Common  Mole 150 

Star-Nosed  Mole 150 

Digging  Muscles  of  a  Mole 152 

Star-Nosed  Mole.     End  of  Nose  and  Left  Fore  Foot 153 

Common  Shrew 154 

Short-Tailed  Shrew       ."..••. 154 

Skeleton  of  Pale  Bat     .      .  ' 159 

California  Leaf -Nosed  Bat 164 

Blainville's  Flower-Nosed  Bat       .      . 165 

Bonneted  Bat 167 

The  Red  Bat     • 172 

Hammer-Headed  Bat 178 

Gray  Squirrel 182 

Southern  Fox  Squirrel 185 

Eastern  Red  Squirrel 189 

Eastern  Chipmunk 191 

Say's  Spermophile 194 

Western  Chipmunk 194 

Thirteen-Lined  Spermophile          

Richardson's  Spermophile 200 

Prairie-"  Dogs" 203 

Woodchuck 209 

The  Flying  Squirrel .  211 

Skull  of  Beaver,  a  Typical  Rodent 217 


JULIUS  in  A  nurss  xvn 

PAGE 

Hudson  Bay  Lemming 225 

Field  Mouse 227 

Gapper's  Red-Backed  Mouse 229 

Northwestern  Vole 231 

Florida  Wood  Rat 232 

Rice-Field  Mouse 234 

Cotton  Rat 235 

White-Footed  Mouse 237 

Le  Conte's  Harvest  Mouse 237 

Mole  Mouse        . .      .      .      .  239 

Kangaroo  Rat 241 

Kangaroo  Rat     ... 242 

Typical  Pocket  Mouse 242 

Jumping  Mouse 244 

Red  Pocket  Gopher .      .  247 

CoypuRat 250 

Brazilian  Prehensile-Tailed  Porcupine 252 

Canada  Porcupine 253 

TheViscacha .255 

TheAgotiti 258 

The  Capybara 261 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  GROUND-PLANS  OF  NATURE 

SCIENCE  is  a  collection  of  facts  concerning  natural  objects  or 
phenomena,  arranged  in  good  order,  and  made  useful. 

NATURAL  SCIENCE  is  th'e  study  of  Nature's  works  and  forces, 
and  embraces  all  things  not  made  by  man.  Among  its  grand 
divisions  may  be  mentioned  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  physics. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  is  the  study  of  Nature's  common  objects; 
but  by  most  persons  this  name  is  applied  only  to  the  study  of 
animal  life.  Natural  history  treats  of  three  great  kingdoms— 
the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral. 

THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM  embraces  not  only  all  the  living  creatures 
which  now  inhabit  the  earth,  but  also  those  which  have  died,  be- 
come extinct,  and  left  only  their  buried  remains,  called  fossils.  Of 
the  animal  kingdom,  three  great  groups  of  subjects  may  be  recog- 
nized, as  follows: 

MAN,  the  study  of  whom  is  called AN-THRO-POL'O-GY 

THE  LOWER  ANIMALS,  the  study  of  which  is  called  ZO-OL'O-GY 

EXTINCT,   or  FOSSIL,   ANIMALS,   the    study   of 

which  is  called PA-LE-ON-TOL'O-GY 

In  strict  reality,  Paleontology  is  only  a  branch  of  Zoology,  for 
the  two  are  inseparably  dovetailed  together.  The  living  animals 
of  to-day  are  the  standards  by  which  the  paleontologist  studies  and 

determines  those  of  the  past. 

xix 


xx  INTRODUCTION 

This  diagram  illustrates  the  relations  which  the  grand  divisions 
of  Natural  History  bear  toward  each  other: 

NATURAL  HISTORY 

KINGDOMS  (IN  A  BROAD  SENSE)  SCIENCES 

Anthropology 

ANIMAL Zoology 

Paleontology 

TT  f  Botany 

VEGETABLE |  Paleobotany 

TVT  /  Geology 

MINERAL..  '  (Mineralogy 

In  its  broadest  sense,  Natural  History  includes  Chemistry  and 
Physics;  but  as  that  term  is  now  commonly  used,  it  is  intended  to 
refer  only  to  the  life  histories  of  living  creatures. 

AN  ANIMAL  is  a  living  creature  belonging  to  the  animal  king- 
dom; but  this  word  is  commonly,  though  incorrectly,  used  to 
designate  mammals  alone. 

The  animals  of  the  world  are  so  vast  in  number,  and  so  varied 
in  form,  that  these  lessons  will  treat  only  of  the  higher  forms  of  life, 
known  as  Vertebrates. 

A  VERTEBRATE  is  an  animal  having  (usually)  a  bony  skeleton 
and  a  spinal  column  or  backbone,  composed  of  a  series  of  bones 
called  vertebrae.  This  division  of  life  is  called  a  Branch. 

THE  BRANCH  VERTEBRATA  is  divided  into  seven  grand  divisions, 
called  Classes;  which  are  known  as  Mammals,  Birds,  Reptiles, 
Amphibians,  Fishes,  Myzonts,  and  Lancelets.1 

A  MAMMAL  is  a  warm-blooded  creature  that  brings  forth  its 
young  alive,  and  nourishes  it  with  milk  from  its  own  body.  All 
land  mammals,  save  a  few  species,  are  covered  with  hair;  and  all 
sustain  life  by  breathing  air  with  the  aid  of  lungs.  Except  man, 
the  mammals  which  live  upon  land  are  also  called  quadrupeds. 

1  Two  other  Classes,  Enteropneusts  and  Tunica tes,  are,  by  some  modern  zoologists,  re- 
garded as  Vertebrates.  These  low  forms,  however,  lack  a  complete  backbone,  or  notochord, 
and  are  therefore  omitted. 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

A  QUADRUPED  is  a  mammal  which  possesses  four  feet,  or,  hav- 
ing two  hands  and  two  feet,  like  the  apes,  yet  walks  upon  all  fours. 

Man  is  a  biped,  or  two-footed  animal.  Land  mammals  gen- 
erally are  quadrupeds,  or  four-/oofed,  and  monkeys  are  quadru- 
manous,  or  four-handed. 

The  term  quadrumana  is  often  applied  to  apes  and  monkeys 
because  the  long  great  toe  on  the  hind  foot  makes  the  foot  quite 
hand-like  in  its  grasping  power. 

A  BIRD  is  a  warm-blooded  animal,  which  comes  from  an  egg 
that  usually  is  laid  and  hatched  by  the  parent.  It  breathes  air, 
is  covered  with  feathers,  usually  is  provided  with  wings,  and  all 
save  a  few  species  can  fly. 

A  REPTILE  is  a  cold-blooded,  egg-laying  animal,  usually  covered 
with  scales  or  a  bony  shell.  All  have  lungs  and  breathe  air,  but  some 
are  able  to  live  in  water  so  comfortably  they  are  called  amphibious. 

AN  AMPHIBIAN  is  a  member  of  the  Class  of  animals  which  forms 
a  connecting  link  between  reptiles  and  fishes.  Some  breathe  air, 
and  live  alternately  on  land  and  in  water,  like  frogs.  Others  have 
gills,  and  live  in  water  all  their  lives.  A  few  are  capable  of  devel- 
oping either  gills  or  lungs,  according  to  the  presence  or  absence  of 
water,  like  the  wonderful  Axolotl  of  Mexico. 

A  FISH  is  a  cold-blooded  animal,  possessing  gills,  fins,  and 
(usually)  scales.  All  save  a  very  few  species  live  permanently  in 
water.  The  exceptions  are  certain  fishes  in  the  East  Indies  which 
for  short  intervals  hop  about  on  land,  or  even  climb  rocks  or  trees! 

GRAND  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ANIMAL  WORLD 

BRANCHES  CLASSES 

Mammals 

Birds 

Reptiles 

VERTEBRATES i  Amphibians 

Fishes 

Myzonts 

Lancelets 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

INSECTS — Body  in  segments,  reproduce  by  a  complete  change  in  form. 

CRUSTACEANS  (Crabs,  Lobsters,  etc.) — Skeleton  external;  gill-breathing, 
chiefly  aquatic. 

MOLLUSKS  ("Shell-Fish") — Soft-bodied,  usually  covered  by  a  hard,  limy 
shell. 

WORMS — True  worms,  and  other  forms  not  fitting  in  elsewhere. 
STAR-FISHES — Salt-water  animals,  with  star-like  structure. 

CORALS — Minute,  salt-water  animals,  which  build  up  solid  masses  of  their 
limy  skeletons. 

JELLY-FISHES — Disk-shaped,  jelly-like  sea  animals,  with  no  hard  parts. 

SPONGES — Stationary  aquatic  animals,  which  look  like  plants;  skeletons  of 
tough,  fibrous  cells. 

PROTOZOANS — Lowest  forms  of  life,  beginning  with  the  single  cell;  mostly 
microscopic. 

HOW  ANIMALS  ARE  CLASSIFIED 

In  order  to  know  and  appreciate  even  a  small  proportion  of  the 
world's  animals,  their  correct  arrangement  into  groups  is  as  neces- 
sary as  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  books  in  a  vast  library. 
By  their  forms  and  characters,  animals  are  divided  into  natural 
groups  and  subdivisions,  and  in  order  that  we  may  understand 
their  proper  relationships,  and  their  places  in  Nature,  we  must  learn 
and  remember  the  general  principles  of  animal  CLASSIFICATION. 
Without  this  foundation  knowledge,  a  clear  view  of  the  splendid 
domain  of  animal  life  is  impossible,  and  the  life  histories  of  our 
living  creatures  will  be  but  a  jumble  of  disconnected  facts  of  very 
slight  practical  use. 

When  properly  simplified,  the  classification  of  the  principal 
groups  of  our  vertebrate  animals  is  as  easily  learned  and  remem- 
bered as  the  leading  facts  of  geography.  Once  learned,  each  animal 
observed  thereafter  can  be  located  in  the  group  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  its  place  in  Nature  understood.  This  helps  toward  exact 
knowledge  of  its  anatomy  and  habits. 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

NOMENCLATURE  is  the  naming  of  animals,  and  the  groups  to 
which  they  belong.  The  object  of  popular  nomenclature,  or  nam- 
ing, is  to  make  the  place  and  character  of  an  animal  clearly  and 
correctly  understood  by  the  greatest  possible  number  of  people. 

SCIENTIFIC  NOMENCLATURE  relates  to  the  use  of  technical  names, 
in  Latin  or  Greek,  in  which  the  general  student  is  not  often  inter- 
ested. Whenever  through  frequent  or  frivolous  changes  of  scien- 
tific names,  or  by  the  giving  of  too  great  a  number  of  them,  our 
knowledge  of  animals  becomes  confused  and  uncertain,  scientific 
classification  defeats  its  own  object,  and  becomes  worse  than  use- 
less. The  observance  by  technical  writers  of  the  fatal  rule  of 
priority,  by  which  the  most  obscure  names  often  are  exalted  at  the 
expense  of  more  appropriate  names  in  universal  use,  is  rapidly 
debasing  the  legitimate  value  of  Latin  names  generally,  and  creat- 
ing wide-spread  uncertainty  and  confusion. 

Latin  words  are  used  for  most  scientific  names,  because  Latin 
is  the  universal  language  of  scientific  men,  the  world  over;  and 
Latin  names  are  used  by  all  educated  nations  without  change  in 
form. 

In  the  development  of  animal  classification,  the  various  classes 
of  animals  are  subdivided  into  groups  which  gradually  grow  smaller, 
until  at  last  each  species  is  named  and  placed,  thus : 

Classes  are  divided  into  Orders: 

Orders  are  divided  into  Families: 

Families  are  divided  into  Genera  (singular  =  genus) : 

Genera  are  divided  into  Species  (singular  =  species) : 

Species  are  divided  into  Individuals. 
As  an  example,  take  the  Puma,  or  Mountain  "Lion." 

Its  Order  is  FERAE,  the  wild  beasts. 

Its  Family  is  Felidae,  the  Cats. 

Its  Genus  is  Felis,  the  true  Cats. 

Its  Species  is  concolor,  gray. 

Its  scientific  name,  therefore,  is  Felis  concolor. 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

All  these  groups  are  divided  into  subdivisions,  such  as  suborders, 
subfamilies,  subgenera,  and  even  subspecies;  but  in  the  writer's 
opinion  there  is  very  little  excuse  for  their  creation,  or  for  their 
continued  existence,  and  the  student  will  do  well  to  let  them  alone — 
until  he  feels  the  need  for  them. 

A  tautonym  is  a  scientific  name  in  which  the  name  of  the  genus  is 
repeated  as  the  name  of  the  species.  Thus,  some  authors  write  the 
Latin  name  of  the  American  Bison  as  Bwon  bison;  and  the  Anhinga 
is  Anhinga  anhinga.  In  America,  the  tautonym  habit  is  merely 
another  step  toward  the  complete  demoralization  of  zoological 
nomenclature. 

A  trinomial  is  a  name  in  three  sections,  applied  to  a  subspecies; 
such  as  Felis  concolor  oregonensis. 

By  scientific  authors,  species  are  frequently  divided  into  sub- 
species, or  races,  because  in  widely  separated  localities,  animals  of 
the  same  parent  stock  sometimes  are  so  influenced  by  differences 
in  climate,  food,  and  surroundings  that  they  assume  different 
colors,  or  grow  larger  or  smaller  than  the  type.  But,  no  matter 
how  much  individuals  may  differ  in  size  and  color,  if  it  is  possible 
to  bring  together  a  collection  of  specimens  which  will  show  all 
stages  of  variation  from  the  type  to  the  extremes,  then  the  specimens 
all  belong  to  the  same  species.  Thus,  in  passing  from  New  York 
to  Ohio,  specimens  of  the  Gray  Squirrel  show  all  shades  of  varia- 
tion, from  the  typical  gray  to  black;  but  all  belong  to  the  same 
species,  called  in  Latin,  Sciurus  carolinensis. 

A  SPECIES  is  an  assemblage  of  individual  animals  which  in  at 
least  one  respect  are  distinctly  different  from  all  others,  and  whose 
peculiarities  are  so  well  marked  and  so  constant  that  they  can  be 
distinguished  from  all  others  without  the  aid  of  locality  labels. 

When  a  new  kind  of  animal  is  found,  adult  specimens  of  which  are 
distinctly  different  from  those  of  all  known  species,  an  average 
specimen  is  taken  as  a  type,  and  it  is  described,  and  christened  by 
its  describer.  Every  species  should  be  distinguishable  by  external 


INTRODUCTION  xxv 

characters;  and  any  animal  which  requires  to  be  killed  and  dis- 
sected before  it  can  be  named,  is  of  no  practical  value  as  an  inde- 
pendent form. 

To  secure  RECOGNITION  among  zoologists,  it  is  important  that 
the  first  description  of  a  new  species  should  appear  in  a  regular 
publication  of  some  scientific  society,  or  in  a  scientific  journal.  In 
case  the  creature  has  not  already  been  described,  and  the  proposed 
species  has  just  claims  to  stand  alone,  this  name  is  entitled  to  stand, 
by  right  of  PRIORITY,  or  first  christening. 

Many  times  it  happens  that  through  ignorance  of  what  has  been 
done  by  others,  or  by  errors  in  judgment,  a  new  name  is  bestowed 
upon  an  animal  or  plant  that  has  already  been  named.  Sometimes, 
also,  it  is  found  that  the  name  bestowed  has  already  been  used  for 
some  other  animal.  A  name  applied  to  an  animal  or  plant  already 
named  is  called  a  synonym.  In  scientific  books,  synonyms  some- 
times are  printed  in  a  list  under  the  correct  name,  followed  by  the 
names  of  their  respective  authors.  A  zoological  synonym  always 
stands  for  a  published  error,  and  scientific  authors  should  be  chary 
of  describing  as  "new"  any  species  which  are  likely  to  prove  mere 
synonyms. 

THE  TYPE  of  any  species  is  a  carefully  selected  specimen  which  in 
size  and  color  may  fairly  be  considered  the  standard,  or  average, 
for  that  species.  Among  zoologists,  this  term  is  applied  to  the 
identical  skin,  or  other  specimen,  described  by  its  discoverer.  Be- 
cause of  the  many  scientific  names  that  are  erroneously  bestowed 
upon  animals,  the  name  of  the  author  who  is  responsible  for  a  name 
is  usually  printed,  in  abbreviated  form,  immediately  after  the  name 
itself,  thus: 

Popular  name.        Scientific  name.        Authority. 
COYOTE.  Canis  latrans.  Say. 

A  parenthesis  enclosing  a  Latin  name  and  the  name  of  its  author 
is  a  sign  that  the  name  has  been  changed  somewhat  from  the  form 
originally  chosen  and  put  forth  by  the  author  of  the  species. 


xxvi  INTRODUCTION 

Taken  as  a  whole,  this  name  means  (1)  that  the  "popular"  name 
of  the  animal  is  Coyote;  (2)  that  its  scientific  name  (Latin)  is  Canis 
(=  dog)  latrans  (=  barking);  and  (3)  that  it  was  first  correctly  de- 
scribed and  named  in  print  by  a  man  named  Say.  If  we  consult 
our  books,  we  will  find  that  Thomas  Say  was  a  Philadelphia  natural- 
ist, and  his  description  of  this  animal  appeared  in  "Long's  Expedi- 
tion to  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  published  in  1823,  Vol.  I,  page  168. 

Whenever  the  name  of  an  animal  has  been  so  long  in  use  that  it 
has  become  familiar  to  millions  of  people,  any  attempt  to  change 
it  tends  to  create  confusion.  A  slightly  incorrect  name  in  universal 
use  is  often  better  than  the  confusion  and  doubt  inseparable  from 
attempting  a  change.  Thus,  the  American  buffalo,  considered  in 
connection  with  the  world's  bovine  animals  generally,  is  really  a 
bison;  and  the  prairie-* 'dog"  is  really  a  prairie  marmot;  but 
since  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  America  know  these  animals  by 
their  incorrect  names,  and  any  effort  to  force  a  universal  change 
would  be  quite  fruitless,  it  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  it. 

It  is  very  important  to  the  student  that  the  names  of  the  various 
Orders  of  vertebrate  animals  should  be  learned  and  remembered; 
for  they  are  the  keys  with  which  to  unlock  and  reveal  all  syste- 
matic knowledge  of  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  amphibians,  and  fishes. 

THE  INTELLIGENCE  OF  ANIMALS:  A  WARNING 

During  the  past  ten  years,  so  many  persons  have  requested  my 
views  regarding  the  mental  capacity  of  animals,  that  I  feel  impelled 
to  enter  here  a  brief  statement,  coupled  with  a  warning.  Un- 
fortunately, it  cannot  be  written  otherwise  than  in  the  first  person. 

While  I  have  no  desire  to  exploit  my  personal  experiences  among 
wild  creatures,  it  is  at  least  fair  to  state,  for  the  benefit  of  the  mil- 
lions to  whom  the  writer  is  unknown,  that  of  wild  creatures  in  their 
haunts,  and  also  in  captivity,  he  has  seen  as  much  as  most  men  of 
his  tastes. 

The  tendency  of  the  present  is  to  idealize  the  higher  animals,  to 


INTRODUCTION  xxvii 

ascribe  to  them  intelligence  and  reasoning  powers  which  they  do 
not  possess,  and  in  some  instances  to  "observe"  wonderful  man- 
ifestations that  take  place  chiefly  in  the  imagination  of  the  beholder. 
For  example,  to  a  woodcock,  having  mingled  blood  and  mud  on  a 
broken  leg,  is  ascribed  a  deliberate  and  well-considered  attempt  at 
"surgery,"  and  the  intentional  making  of  a  clay  jacket,  re-enforced 
with  pieces  of  grass.  To  my  mind,  all  such  "observations"  as  the 
above  are  too  absurd  for  serious  consideration;  and  when  put  forth 
for  the  information  of  the  young,  they  are  harmful. 

There  exists  to-day  a  tendency  to  ascribe  to  wild  animals  a  full 
measure  of  human  intelligence.  But  wild  creatures  must  not  be 
taken  too  seriously.  With  all  their  "schools"  in  the  woods,  they 
are  not  yet  as  intelligent  as  human  beings;  and  the  strain  that  is 
being  put  upon  them  by  some  of  their  exponents  is  much  too  great. 
With  the  most  honest  intentions,  a  naturalist  may  so  completely 
overestimate  and  misinterpret  the  actions  of  animals  as  to  reach 
very  ridiculous  conclusions. 

Judging  from  all  that  I  have  seen  and  heard  of  wild  creatures 
of  many  kinds,  from  apes  to  centipedes,  both  in  captivity  and  out, 
I  believe  that  practically  all  their  actions  are  based  upon  natural, 
inborn  instinct — nearly  all  of  it  in  the  line  of  self-preservation,  and 
the  exceptions  are  due  to  the  natural  tendency  to  imitate  leaders. 
Of  hereditary  knowledge — another  name  for  instinct,  some  animals 
have  an  abundance.  Of  special  knowledge,  acquired  by  systematic 
reasoning  from  premise  to  conclusion,  most  animals  have  very 
little,  and  very  few  ever  exhibit  powers  of  ratiocination. 

It  is  not  true  that  young  animals  know  things  only  as  their 
parents  teach  them.  The  assertion  that  all  young  birds  must  be 
"taught"  to  fly,  or  run,  or  swim,  or  catch  insects,  is  ridiculous, 
and  not  even  worthy  of  discussion.  It  is  just  as  natural  for  a  one- 
week-old  lion  cub  to  spit,  and  claw  at  a  human  hand,  as  it  is  for  it 
to  breathe  and  suck.  There  are  no  deer  in  a  captive  herd  so  in- 
sanely wild  and  fearful  of  keepers  as  the  fawns. 


xxviii  INTRODUCTION 

No;  even  the  higher  animals  are  not  yet  as  wise  as  human 
beings.  In  matters  involving  intelligence,  such  as  in  the  treatment 
of  wounds,  or  disease,  below  the  higher  Primates  there  is  not  more 
than  one  out  of  every  hundred  which  has  sense  enough  to  compre- 
hend a  relief  measure,  or  which  will  not  fight  the  surgeon  to  the 
utmost.  Some  apes  do  indeed  learn  to  be  doctored;  but  there  are 
many  which  never  grasp  the  idea,  and  fight  until  they  die.  Of 
mammals  generally,  not  more  than  one  out  of  every  hundred  will 
permit  a  bandage  to  remain  on  a  broken  leg  when  they  have  the 
power  to  tear  it  off.  "Animal  surgery,"  indeed! 

In  the  matter  of  disposition,  wild  mammals  and  birds  are  no 
more  angelic  than  human  beings.  In  every  family,  in  every  herd, 
and  in  every  cage,  from  tigers  to  doves,  the  strong  bully  and  oppress 
the  weak  and  drive  them  to  the  wall.  Of  all  quadrupeds,  deer 
are  the  greatest  fools,  wolves  are  the  meanest,  apes  the  most  cun- 
ning, bears  the  most  consistent  and  open-minded,  and  chimpanzees 
the  most  intellectual. 

Of  birds,  the  parrots  and  cockatoos  are  the  most  philosophic, 
the  cranes  are  the  most  domineering,  the  darters  are  the  most 
treacherous,  the  gallinaceous  birds  have  the  least  common-sense, 
and  the  swimming  birds  are  by  far  the  quickest  to  recognize  pro- 
tection and  accept  it. 

The  virtues  of  the  higher  animals  have  been  extolled  unduly, 
and  their  intelligence  has  been  magnified  about  ten  diameters. 
The  meannesses  and  cruelties  of  wild  animals  toward  each  other 
form  a  long  series  of  chapters  which  have  not  yet  been  written,  and 
which  no  lover  of  animals  cares  to  write. 

I  can  see  no  possible  objection  to  the  writing  of  good  fiction 
stories  in  which  animals  are  the  characters  and  the  actors  through- 
out. I  love  a  good  story,  and  I  enjoy  a  wild-animal  hero,  even 
when  the  entire  plot  and  all  its  characters  are  imaginary.  To  such 
there  can  be  no  objection,  so  long  as  the  reader  knows  that  fiction  is 
fiction!  But  the  realms  of  fact  and  fiction  are  very  distinct,  and 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

the  boundary  should  be  maintained  openly  and  visibly.  In  books 
for  children,  especially,  fantastic  imaginings  should  not  be  offered 
as  serious  facts;  but  such  stories  as  "Raggylugg,"  "Redruff,"  and 
"Krag,"  by  Mr.  Ernest  T.  Seton,  deserve  to  live  forever.  "Moos- 
wa"  is  a  fiction  story  of  animals  that  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind. 

The  most  marvellous  doings  of  wild  animals  are  to  be  found  in 
books  and  newspapers.  Only  in  books  do  porcupines  roll  down 
steep  hills  in  order  to  gather  dead  leaves  upon  their  quills,  and 
thereby  be  able  to  do  more  wonderful  things.  Only  in  books  do 
kingfishers  catch  fish,  carry  them  a  mile  or  less,  and  place  them  in  a 
brook  in  order  to  give  their  nestlings  object  lessons  in  ichthyology 
and  in  the  gentle  art  of  angling.  You  or  I  may  spend  years  in  the 
forests  and  fields,  observing  and  collecting  wild  creatures,  and  see 
only  a  very  few  acts  of  the  wild  folk  which  we  can  call  wonderful. 
But  then,  somehow,  our  animals  rarely  have  been  as  large,  or  as 
well  educated,  as  those  of  some  other  observers. 

Try  all  questions  of  animal  action  and  intelligence  with  the 
touchstone  of  common-sense.  Be  not  startled  by  the  "discovery" 
that  apes  and  monkeys  have  "language";  for  their  vocabulary 
is  not  half  so  varied  and  extensive  as  that  of  barn-yard  fowls,  whose 
language  many  of  us  know  very  well.  Take  no  stock  in  the  syste- 
matic and  prolonged  "duels"  of  wild  animals  who  meet  and  fight 
to  the  death,  under  Marquis  of  Queensberry  rules.  A  fight  be- 
tween two  wild  animals  is  usually  a  very  brief  event, — so  say  re- 
liable men  who  have  seen  them  in  the  wilds, — and  unless  there  is 
an  accidental  death-lock  of  antlers,  the  vanquished  party  usually 
shows  his  heels  long  before  he  is  seriously  wounded. 

Animal  psychology  is  a  most  interesting  study,  and  its  pursuit 
is  now  engaging  the  serious  attention  of  scientific  men.  If  the 
general  public  could  know  the  plain  and  simple  basis  on  which  they 
are  proceeding,  this  warning  against  the  idealization  of  animals 
would  hardly  be  necessary.  Men  of  science  who  study  the  minds  of 
animals  do  not  idealize  their  subjects,  or  ascribe  to  them  super- 


xxx  INTRODUCTION 

human  intelligence;  nor  are  they  always  on  the  alert  to  ascribe 
to  every  simple  action  some  astoundingly  intelligent  and  far- 
fetched motive.  In  the  study  of  animal  intelligence,  the  legitimate 
Truth  is  sufficiently  wonderful  to  satisfy  all  save  those  who  crave 
the  sensational,  regardless  of  facts. 

RULES  FOR  MEASURING  MAMMALS,  HORNS,  ETC. 

The  increasing  amount  of  attention  that  is  being  paid  to  the 
measurements  and  weights  of  animals  renders  necessary  the  adop- 
tion of  a  uniform  system,  in  order  that  species  and  individuals 
may  be  compared  on  a  fair  basis.  To  promote  this  end  the  follow- 
ing rules  are  offered: 

Small  Mammals  Generally 

1.  Record  all  measurements  in  feet  and  inches,  and  leave  the 
metric  scale  for  those  who  prefer  a  foreign  system. 

2.  Measurements  of  skins  are  of  very  slight  value;   therefore, 
always  measure  a  specimen  before  skinning  it. 

3.  Lay  every  mammal  on  its  side,  pull  the  head  straight  for- 
ward, and  measure  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  point  where  the 
tail  joins  the  body.     This  is  the  "Length  of  head  and  body." 

4.  From  the  last-mentioned  point,  measure  to  the  end  of  the 
tail  vertebrae,  not  the  hair,  for  "Length  of  tail."     If  the  tail-tuft  is 
important,  measure  it  separately. 

5.  Weigh  large  examples  of  species  that  are  larger  than  rats 
and  mice;  and  in  each  case,  weigh  the  whole  of  the  specimen. 

Large  Mammals 

1.  The  "Height  at  the  shoulder"  is  the  most  important  measure- 
ment. To  obtain  this,  hold  the  uppermost  fore  leg  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  position  it  occupied  when  supporting  the  animal.  Do 
not  measure  from  the  "point  of  the  hoof,"  for  that  means  nothing. 
Hold  the  hoof  with  its  bottom  parallel  with  the  body,  as  when  the 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

animal  stood  upon  it;  erect  there  a  stick  to  mark  the  bottom  line, 
and  another  to  mark  the  top  of  shoulders,  at  the  skin.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  two  perpendiculars,  in  a  straight  line,  will  be 
the  true  height  of  the  animal.  Do  not  follow  any  curves. 

2.  The  "Length  of  head  and  body"  must  be  obtained  in  a  straight 
line  between  root  of  tail  and  end  of  nose,  with  the  head  drawn  straight 
forward,  and  not  following  any  curves.     The  "Length  of  tail"  is 
from  its  base  to  the  end  of  the  vertebrae. 

3.  The  "Girth"  is  the  tight  circumference  of  the  animal  imme- 
diately behind  the  fore  legs. 

4.  The  "Depth  of  the  body"  is  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  top  of  the  shoulders  to  the  brisket,  or  lower  line  of  the  breast, 
immediately  behind  the  fore  leg.     To  artists,  sculptors,  and  taxi- 
dermists, this  is  a  very  important  measurement. 

5.  The  "Circumference  of  the  neck"  is  taken  half-way  between 
the  ears  and  shoulders,  close  to  the  skin. 

6.  The  " Length  from  head  of  femur  to  head  of  humerus"  is  also 
a  highly  valuable  figure  for  artists,  and  it  is  easily  taken  by  feeling 
through  the  skin  for  the  high  points  of  those  joints. 

7.  Weigh  an  animal  before  it  is  "dressed";   but  if  the  dressed 
weight  of  a  deer  is  known,  a  close  approximation  to  its  live  weight 
can  be  obtained  by  the  aid  of  the  rule  given  on  page  68,  volume  II. 

Antlers  and  Horns 

1.  The  "Length  on  outer  curve"  is  obtained  by  starting  the  tape- 
line  at  the  base  of  the  horn,  at  its  lowest  point  on  the  face,  and  fol- 
lowing the  curves  or  windings  of  the  horn,  quite  to  the  tip.     In 
horns  that  are  deeply  ringed,  such  as  those  of  the  large  African 
antelopes,  the  tape  must  not  be  pressed  into  the  hollows  between 
the  ridges. 

2.  The  "Greatest  spread"  is  taken  from  outside  to  outside  of 
the  antlers  where  they  spread  widest!     This  should  not  be  taken 
inside  the  horns,  for  that  does  not  represent  the  real  width  of  the 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

horns,  any  more  than  interior  measurements  would  represent  the 
spread  of  a  tree. 

3.  The  "Distance  between  tips"  needs  no  explanation. 

4.  The  "Circumference  at  base"  should,  for  all  bovines,  sheep, 
goats,  ibex,  and  deer,  be  taken  in  a  circle  around  the  largest  diameter 
of  the  horns.     The  tape  should  not  follow  the  meanderings  of  the 
end  of  a  sheep's  horn.     With  the  antlers  of  all  members  of  the  Deer 
Family,  the  circumference  should  be  measured  immediately  above 
the  burr. 

5.  "Width  of  palmation"  of  moose  and  caribou  should  always 
be  measured  where  the  palmation  is  widest. 

6.  A  "Point"  on  an  antler  is  any  pointed  projection  of  sufficient 
length  that  a  watch  can  hang  upon  it  without  falling  off. 

7.  The  "Weight  of  horns"  must  state  whether  it  be  with  "entire 
skull,"  or  "with  skull-piece"  only. 

8.  Shed  antlers  that  have  been  set  artificially  on  a  manufac- 
tured skull,  or  frame,  are  not  entitled  to  measurement  for  "spread"; 
but  where  a  skull  has  been  sawn  in  two  lengthwise  by  a  clean  cut, 
and  bolted  together  again  without  alteration  of  the  sawn  surfaces,  it 
is  entitled  to  measurement  for  "spread"  and  "distance  between 
tips." 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER  I 
ORDERS  OF  MAMMALS 

living  mammals  of  the  world,  as  distinguished  from 
those  which  are  extinct,  or  fossil,  may  be  divided  into 
fifteen  grand  divisions,  called  ORDERS.  The  Order  is  the 
foundation  of  mammalian  arrangement.  Without  adequate 
knowledge  of  these  divisions,  a  clear  understanding  of  the  re- 
lationships of  mammals  is  quite  impossible. 

It  is  customary  with  technical  writers  to  begin  with  the 
lowest  forms  of  life  and  toil  upward  toward  the  highest;  but 
to  the  general  reader,  or  even  to  the  average  student,  it  is 
very  discouraging  to  find  the  most  interesting  forms  the 
farthest  away.  Frequently  the  most  interesting  animals  are 
never  reached!  For  many  reasons,  it  is  best  that  we  should 
first  consider  the  forms  that  are  most  important,  and  also 
most  interesting,  and  thus  make  sure  of  them.  We  therefore 
begin  our  studies  of  the  animal  kingdom  with  the  highest 
forms. 

While  the  great  majority  of  the  examples  cited  will  be 
North  American,  a  few  from  other  continents  will  be  intro- 
duced to  complete  the  chain  of  important  facts. 


4 


OF  MAMMALS 


THE  ORDERS  OF  LIVING  MAMMALS 


ORDER 

PRIMATES 

PRONUNCIATION 

Pri'matz 

MEANING 

.  .  First  order        \ 

FERAE,  OR        1 

/"i                                          I 

Fe're  

{  Flesh-eating      f 

CARNIVORA.  J 

PlNNIPEDIA  .... 

.Pin-ni-pe'dia  .  . 

\      Wild  Beasts  \ 
.  .  Fin-footed  

INSECTIVORA.  . 

.In-sec-tiv'o-rah  . 

.  .  Insect-eaters  .  . 

CHIROPTERA  .  .  .  .Ki-rop'ter-ah Wing-handed 

Gli'rez . .  . .  Gnawers  . 


EXAMPLES 

Man,  apes,  and  mon- 
keys. 

Cats,  dogs,  bears, 
martens. 

Sea-lions,  seals,  walrus. 

Moles  and  shrews. 

B  ats  and  flying 
"foxes." 


GLIRES,  OR 
RODENTIA  . 


UNGULATA1  .... 

PROBOSCIDEA  . . 
HYRACOIDEA  .  .  . 

CETE 

SIRENIA 

EDENTATA 

EFFODIENTIA  . . . 
MARSUPIALIA  . . 
MONOTREMATA . 


Un-gu-laftah  . . . 

Pro-bos-cid'e-a  . 
.Hy-ra-coi'de-a  . 

.Se'te.  . 


Hoofed 


Si-re'ne-a . . 
E-den-ta'ta 


Ef-fo-de-en'shia 
Mar-su-pl-a'li-a 
Mon-o-trem  'a-ta 


|  Hares,    gophers,    rats, 

\      squirrels. 

|  Cattle,    deer,    sheep, 

\  swine,  tapirs. 
With  proboscis  .Elephants  only. 
Hyraxes  only. 

J  Whales,    porpoises, 

\      dolphins. 

. .  Manatee  and  dugong. 

J  Armadillos,   sloths, 

\      and  ant-eaters. 

Diggers Pangolin,  aardvark. 

Pouched Opossum,  kangaroo. 

Single  duct  ....  Platypus  and  echidna. 


Whales.... 
Sea-Cows.  . 
Toothless.. 


1  In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  exact  science,  Professor  Henry  Fair- 
field  Osborn  divides  the  Ungulates  into  two  Orders:  the  Artiodactyla,  or  Even- 
toed,  and  Perissodactyla,  or  Odd-toed  hoofed  animals.  On  account,  however,  of 
the  place  now  held  in  the  mind  of  the  general  reader  and  teacher  by  the  long- 
known  Order  Ungulata,  I  hesitate  to  make  here  a  complete  change  in  its  form. 


FEMALE   CHIMPANZEE,    "SUSIE." 
In  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 


EXPLANATION   OF   THE   CHART  OF  THE   ORDERS  OF 

MAMMALS 

To  the  student  of  Natural  History,  the  Order  is  the  master-key  to  class- 
ification; and  these  grand  divisions  should  always  be  kept  fresh  in  the 
mind. 

This  chart  is  based  on  the  well-known  fact  that  in  the  pursuit  of  a 
difficult  study,  any  scheme  which  properly  and  truthfully  appeals  to  the 
eye  is  an  aid  both  to  the  understanding  and  the  memory.  It  shows  the 
relative  importance  of  the  various  Orders  of  Mammals,  but  not  their 
relative  sizes,  based  on  the  number  of  species  in  each,  as  has  been  done 
later  on  with  the  birds.  If  number  of  species  were  given  precedence  over 
economic  importance,  the  Order  Glires  would  dominate,  and  the  Order 
Ungulata  would  appear  small  and  insignificant. 

It  is  impossible  to  construct  a  diagram  which  will  show  correctly  the 
relations  which  the  various  Orders  bear  toward  each  other,  anatomically. 
This  is  because  some  Orders  are  characterized  by  their  teeth,  some  by 
their  feet,  or  hands;  others  by  their  wings,  and  two  by  their  mode  of  pro- 
ducing their  young. 

It  will  be  noted  that: 

The  Primates,  of  the  tree-tops,  have  the  highest  position. 

The  Cete,  which  in  some  respects  are  the  lowest  of  the  Mammalia, 
occupy  the  lowest  position. 

The  Bats  are  shown  in  mid  air,  and  the  Insectivores  appear  under- 
ground, where  they  live  out  their  lives. 

The  Seals  and  Sea-Lions  appear  both  on  the  shore  and  in  the  sea,  and 
the  Sirenians  are  located  in  an  estuary. 

The  Ferae,  Glires,  and  Ungulata  spread  throughout  the  whole  visible 
earth,  covering  forest  and  plain,  sea,  pond,  and  stream,  from  the  sea  to 
the  most  distant  mountains. 

The  Monotremates,  or  egg-laying  mammals,  are  quite  apart  from  all 
other  land  mammals,  and  appear  low  down,  near  the  home  of  the  ducks, 
as  shown  on  the  bird  chart.  The  space  allotted  to  this  strange  Order 
has  been  made  egg-shaped,  to  suggest  the  leading  characteristic  of  its 
members. 


PRIMATES 

APES,  BABOONS, 
MONKEYS,  LEMURS 


IPTERA  ;>  FERAE 

I    OR 

CARNIVORA 


GLIRESoR 
RODENTIA 

THE  GNAWERS 


UNGULAT/ 

HOOFED 
ANIMALS 


Copyright,  1903,  by  W.  T.  Hornaday. 

LANDSCAPE   CHART  OF  THE   ORDERS  OF  LIVING  MAMMALS. 


CHAPTER  II 
ORDER    OF    APES    AND    MONKEYS 

PRIMATES 

THIS  Order  includes  all  creatures  with  hands,  and  hand- 
like  feet.  With  the  exception  of  the  Japanese  red-faced 
monkey,  the  tscheli  monkey  of  China,  and  two  or  three  other 
Chinese  species,  all  its  members  inhabit  the  tropics,  far  below 
the  frost-line.  It  is  on  or  near  the  Equator  that  the  lower 
Primates  reach  their  highest  development,  and  the  great 
apes  approach  nearest  to  man.  Let  it  not  be  supposed,  how- 
ever, that  the  chain  of  evolution  from  the  aye-aye  to  the 
gorilla  is  complete;  for  the  gap  between  the  gibbons  and  the 
monkeys  is  much  greater  than  that  between  the  gorilla  and 
man. 

All  men,  even  savages,  are  specially  interested  in  apes  and 
monkeys,  because  they  are  the  highest  of  the  lower  animals, 
and  stand  nearest  to  man.  There  is  no  human  being  of  sound 
mind  to  whom  their  human-likeness  does  not  appeal.  We 
will  introduce  here  several  species  which  do  not  exist  in  the 
New  World,  because  without  them  our  Foundation  for  the 
Mammalia  would  be  incomplete. 

Although  tropical  America  contains  a  very  respectable 
number  of  species  of  monkeys,  they  are,  as  a  whole,  both 


10  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

structurally  and  mentally,  far  lower  than  the  monkeys  and 
baboons  of  the  Old  World.  Structurally  they  are  weak,  in 
spirit  they  are  timid  and  cowardly,  and  intellectually  they 
are  dull  to  the  point  of  stupidity.  With  the  exception  of  the 
sapajous,  they  are  in  general  so  ill  fitted  to  survive  that  if 
they  are  on  exhibition  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  keep  any  of 
them  alive  in  captivity  much  longer  than  one  year.  If  not 
exhibited,  they  survive  longer. 

On  the  other  hand,  very  many  of  the  monkeys  and  baboons 
of  the  Old  World  have  developed  first-class  fighting  powers  and 
pugnacious  tempers.  They  have  dangerous  canine  teeth,  wide- 
spreading  jaws,  strong  muscles,  and  keen  wits  for  either  attack 
or  defence.  The  Lemuroids,  however,  the  lowest  of  the  Pri- 
mates, are  almost  as  mild-mannered  and  harmless  as  rabbits. 

With  Ethnology,  the  study  of  the  races  of  Mankind,  we 
have  here  nothing  to  do.  That  subject  is  so  interesting,  and 
so  vast  in  its  extent,  that  nothing  less  than  an  entire  volume 
could  adequately  set  it  forth.  The  grand  divisions  of  the 
Primates  in  general  are  as  shown  below. 

ORDER  PRIMATES 
Suborder  Anthropoidea 

FAMILIES  EXAMPLES 

MAN Horn-in' i-dae. 

Gorilla Gorilla  gorilla. 


ANTHROPOID 
APES  . 


OLD  WORLD 
MONKEYS 
AND  BAB- 


OONS 


Sim-i'i-dae 


Cer-co-pi-the'- 
ci-dae  . 


Chimpanzee Pan  troglodytes. 

Orang-Utan Simia  satyrus. 

Gibbon Hylobates  leuciscus. 

Japanese  Red-faced 

Monkey Macacus  speciosus. 

Diana  Monkey  ....  Cercopithecus  diana. 
Gelada  Baboon  ....  Theropithecus  gelada. 


THE   APES 


11 


NEW  WORLD 
MONKEYS  . 


Ceb'i-dae  .      .  • 


f  Cal-li-thri'ci- 


EXAMPLES 

White-throated 

Sapajou  ........  Cebus  hypoleucus. 

Black  Spider- 
Monkey  Ateles  ater. 

Howlers  .  .Alouatta. 


MARMOSETS  .  .  <       ,  <  Common  Marmoset .  Callithrix  jacchus. 

Suborder  Lemuroidea 

LEMURS Le-mur'i-dae  .  .  .  Ruffed  Lemur Lemur  varius. 

TARSIER Tar-si' i-dae ....  Tarsier Tarsius  tarsius. 

\  Dau-ben-ton-    }    , 
AYE- AYE <       .,  .  ,  >  Aye- Aye Daubentoma. 

I         1  -1-CLCL6  .  .  .  .    J 

4 

THE  APES. — The  three  great  manlike  (or  an'thro-poid) 
apes — gorilla,  chimpanzee,  and  orang-utan — are  so  much  like 
human  beings  that,  to  most  persons,  they  are  the  most  won- 
derful of  all  living  creatures  below  man.  Their  points  of 
resemblance  to  man  are  so  many  and  so  striking  that  they 
are  a  source  of  wonder  even  to  savages. 

As  will  be  observed  from  a  comparison  of  the  skeletons  of 
man  and  gorilla,  below  the  skull  their  parallelism  is  remark- 
ably close.  Both  in  kind  and  in  number  the  bones  are  the 
same,  and  they  differ  only  in  their  proportions.  The  hands 
and  feet  of  the  gorilla  are  designed  for  a  life  that  is  half  ter- 
restrial and  half  arboreal,  while  those  of  man  are  for  life  on 
the  ground.  The  long  thumb  and  great  toe  of  the  gorilla  are  far 
superior  to  those  members  in  the  chimpanzee  and  orang-utan. 

The  widest  differences  between  man  and  the  gorilla  are  in 
their  skulls.  In  the  gorilla,  the  high  forehead  and  intellectual 
faculties  so  characteristic  in  man  are  totally  wanting,  indi- 
cating a  very  low  order  of  intelligence.  The  long  and  power- 


APES  AND  MONKEYS 


ful  canine  teeth  are  alone  sufficient  to  proclaim  the  savage 
wild  beast. 

To  many  persons  it  seems  strange  that,  notwithstanding 
the  seemingly  wide  differences  between  the  various  races  of 


By  permission  of  J.  F.  G.  Umlauff. 


SKELETONS   OF  MAN  AND   GORILLA. 


1,  cervical  vertebrae, 

2,  collar  bone, 

3,  humerus, 

4,  sternum, 

5,  ribs, 

6,  rib  cartilages, 


7,  dorsal  vertebrae, 

8,  lumbar  vertebrae, 

9,  pelvis, 

10,  radius, 

11,  ulna, 
12,carpals, 


13,  metacarpals, 

14,  phalanges, 

15,  cavity  of  pelvis, 

16,  sacrum, 

17,  femur, 

18,  patella, 


19,  fibula, 

20,  tibia, 

21,  tarsals, 

22,  metatarsals, 

23,  phalanges. 


THE  GORILLA  13 

men,  all  mankind  is  classed  in  a  single  species.  In  spite  of 
the  vast  differences  in  intellect  between  the  native  Australian 
—not  yet  out  of  the  stone  age — and  a  Caucasian  philosopher, 
both  belong  to  Homo  sapiens,  and  between  them  there  is  not 
even  a  subspecific  difference. 

Even  if  the  great  apes  could  talk  as  well  as  the  Veddahs  of 
Ceylon,  whose  vocabulary  consists  of  only  about  two  hundred 
words,  their  anatomical  differences  from  the  genus  Homo  would 
separate  them  quite  as  widely  as  they  now  are.  The  segrega- 
tion of  a  species  requires  a  structural  difference  that  is  constant. 

The  classification  of  the  species  and  alleged  species  of 
gorillas,  chimpanzees,  and  orang-utans  is  in  a  highly  unset- 
tled condition.  Of  the  scientists  who  have  studied  these 
genera  with  the  most  care  and  pains,  no  two  agree,  either  on 
names  or  number  of  species.  The  trouble  seems  to  lie  in  the 
lack  of  study  in  the  haunts  of  the  animals,  and  lack  of  mate- 
rials to  study  in  the  museums.  Under  the  circumstances  it  is 
useless  to  attempt  to  decide  between  the  conflicting  authori- 
ties, and  therefore  we  will  adhere  to  the  old  names  until 
pending  questions  are  settled. 

THE  GoRiLLA1  is  the  largest,  the  ugliest,  the  most  fierce 
of  the  apes,  and  by  reason  of  its  shorter  arms  and  longer  legs, 
it  is  really  the  nearest  to  man.  It  is  the  only  large  ape  that 
walks  erect  without  being  taught,  and  that  spends  a  consider- 
able portion  of  its  life  upon  the  ground.  In  bulk  it  is  larger 
than  an  average  man,  and  its  arms  and  chest  are  of  enormous 
proportions.2  The  countenance  of  the  Gorilla  is  very  ugly 

1  Go-ril'la  gorilla. 

2  The  average  man  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  is  5  feet  6  inches  in  height  and 
weighs  160  pounds. 


14  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

and  repulsive,  and  the  shape  of  its  skull  is  much  farther  from 
that  of  man  than  are  those  of  the  chimpanzee  and  orang- 
utan. Its  skin  is  black,  and  the  hair  of  full-grown  specimens 
is  grizzly  gray. 

The  Gorilla  inhabits  only  a  very  small  area  in  West  Africa, 
directly  on  the  Equator,  between  the  Gaboon  and  Congo 
Rivers,  and  extending  only  two  hundred  miles  back  from  the 
coast.  It  is  very  shy,  and  so  difficult  to  approach  in  those 
dark  and  tangled  forests  that  very  few  white  men  have  ever 
seen  one  wild. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  specimens  ever  secured  was 
the  huge  old  male  killed  and  photographed  by  Mr.  H.  Paschen, 
a  German  trader,  near  Tsonu  Town,  German  Cameroon 
country,  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  north  of  the  Equator, 
in  1901.  This  animal,  photographed  in  the  flesh,  with  three 
natives  beside  it  for  comparison,  to  show  its  immense  size, 
was  shot  in  a  tree,  without  difficulty  or  danger.  It  measured 
66  inches  in  height,  its  chest,  arms,  and  shoulders  were  of 
gigantic  proportions,  and  its  weight  was  estimated  at  500 
pounds.  Twelve  men  were  required  to  carry  it  from  the 
jungle  to  the  village,  where  it  was  photographed. 

On  account  of  the  sullen,  sulky  disposition  of  the  Gorilla 
in  captivity,  only  one  of  the  four  or  five  young  specimens 
that  have  been  brought  to  Europe  has  lived  longer  than  about 
eighteen  months.  They  sulk,  often  refuse  food,  will  not  exer- 
cise, and  die  of  indigestion.  Up  to  January  1,  1914,  only  two 
live  Gorillas  have  landed  in  the  United  States.  One  of  them 
lived  five  days  and  the  other  ten  days.  The  latter  was  im- 
ported in  1912  by  the  New  York  Zoological  Society,  and  while 


THE   GORILLA. 
Shot  and  photographed  at  Tsonu  Town,  West  Africa,  by  H.  Paschen,  1901. 


THE   CHIMPANZEE 


15 


it  survived  was  exhibited  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 
Showmen  sometimes  label  a  baboon  "Gorilla,"  or  "Lion- 
Slayer,"  and  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  Gorilla  has  no 
tail  whatever. 

THE   CHIMPANZEE1  is  about  one-third  smaller  than  the 
gorilla.     Its  brain,  face,  ears,  and  hands  are  more  manlike 


CHIMPANZEES   AND  ORANG-UTANS  DINING  IN  THE  NEW  YORK 
ZOOLOGICAL  PARK. 


than  those  of  any  other  ape,  and  its  large  brain  and  keen 
mind  render  it  in  thought  and  habit  much  more  manlike  than 
is  the  gorilla.  It  is  an  animal  of  bright  and  cheerful  disposi- 
tion, though  subject  to  sudden  fits  of  bad  temper,  and,  having 
a  good  memory,  it  is  easily  taught.  Young  Chimpanzees  are 

1  Pan  troglodytes.  Described  in  most  books  under  the  untenable  and  more  un- 
wieldy name  of  Anthropopithecus  troglodytes.  This  animal  has  been  described 
under  nine  different  generic  names,  but  Pan  is  the  oldest  one  available  and  the 
best. 


16  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

affectionate  and  childlike,  but  when  large  and  strong  the 
males  are  usually  dangerous  and  not  to  be  trusted.  Some 
individuals  have  displayed  remarkable  intelligence.  "  Sally," 
of  the  London  Zoological  Gardens,  could  count  correctly  up 
to  five,  whenever  bidden,  and  hand  out  the  correct  number  of 
straws.  Several  very  intelligent  Chimpanzees  have  been  ex- 
hibited for  long  periods  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park, 
where  a  large  collection  of  apes  is  constantly  maintained. 

After  several  years  of  observation  of  living  Chimpanzees 
and  orang-utans,  in  daily  comparison,  I  am  convinced  that 
the  only  substantial  psychological  differences  between  the 
two  species  are  that  the  temperament  of  the  Chimpanzee  is 
of  the  nervous  type,  and  its  mind  is  more  alert  and  prompt 
in  action  than  that  of  the  orang,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  temperament  of  the  orang  is  sanguine,  its  disposition  is 
more  serene,  and  while  its  mind  may  be  somewhat  less  showy 
on  exhibition,  its  capacity  is  very  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
the  Chimpanzee.  The  greater  quickness  of  the  Chimpanzee, 
both  in  thought  and  action,  renders  it  on  the  whole  the  best 
show  animal  in  public  performances. 

Many  persons  consider  the  Chimpanzee  superior  in  intelli- 
gence to  the  orang-utan,  but  thus  far  the  only  real  difference 
appears  to  be  that  the  mind  of  the  former  is  more  alert,  and 
acts  more  quickly  than  that  of  the  orang.  This  renders  the 
former  a  more  showy  animal. 

In  walking,  the  Chimpanzee  does  not  place  the  palms  of 
its  hands  flat  upon  the  ground,  but  bends  its  fingers  at  the 
middle  joint,  and  walks  upon  its  knuckles. 

It  does  not,  as  so  often  is  asserted  on  hearsay  evidence, 


THE  ORANG-UTAN 


17 


build  a  hut  or  a  roof  of  branches  under  which  to  sleep.  Its 
home  is  the  heavy  forest  region  of  equatorial  Africa,  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Lake  Tanganyika.  Like  the  gorilla, 
its  skin  is  black,  and  when  young  its  hair  is  also,  but  when 


By  permission  of  Edwards  Bros. 

A   DRESSED-TJP   CHIMPANZEE. 

fully  grown  its  hair  is  dark  iron-gray.  This  animal  can  be 
distinguished  from  the  orang-utan  at  a  glance  by  the  greater 
size  of  its  ears  and  its  black  color. 

THE  ORANG-UTAN  (from  two  pure  Malay  words,  "orang" 
=  man,  and  "utan"  =  jungle)  is  also  about  two-thirds  the 
size  of  the  gorilla,  and  is  easily  recognized  by  its  brick-red 
hair,  brown  skin,  and  small  ears.  The  largest  specimen  on 


18  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

record  stood  4  feet  6  inches  in  height  from  heel  to  head, 
measured  42  inches  around  the  chest,  and  between  finger-tips 
stretched  8  feet.  The  old  males  develop  a  strange,  flat  ex- 
pansion of  the  cheek,  called  "cheek  callosities,"  13  inches 
across;  but  in  young  animals  this  is  seldom  developed.  The 
hand  is  \\1A  inches  long,  the  foot  13J/2  inches,  but  the  width 
of  each  across  the  palm  is  only  3M  inches.  The  weight  of  a 
large,  full-grown  male  Orang  is  about  250  pounds. 

The  black  gorilla  and  chimpanzee  both  inhabit  the  land 
of  black  men;  the  brown  Orang-Utan  lives  only  in  Borneo 
and  Sumatra,  the  land  of  the  brown-skinned  Malay.  The 
latter  prefers  the  belt  of  level,  swampy  forest  near  the  coast, 
lives  wholly  in  the  tree-tops,  and  rarely  descends  to  the  earth 
except  for  water.  Orangs  travel  by  swinging  underneath  the 
large  branches  with  their  long,  muscular  arms.  Because  of 
their  great  weight,  they  cannot  leap  from  tree  to  tree,  as 
monkeys  do,  but  they  swing  with  wonderful  rapidity  and 
precision.  They  eat  all  kinds  of  wild  fruit,  fleshy  leaves,  and 
the  shoots  of  the  screw  pine. 

In  proper  hands,  young  Orang-Utans  are  very  susceptible 
to  training.  The  New  York  Zoological  Park  maintains  almost 
constantly  a  collection  of  chimpanzees  and  Orangs,  all  of 
which  have  been  taught  to  wear  clothes,  sit  in  chairs  at  table, 
eat  with  fork  and  spoon,  drink  from  cups  and  bottles,  and  per- 
form many  other  human-like  actions  without  nervousness,  in 
the  presence  of  two  thousand  visitors.  Each  of  the  Orangs 
learns  its  part  in  about  two  weeks'  training,  and  at  the  dinner- 
table  acts  with  gravity  and  decorum. 

In  captivity,  young  Orang-Utans  are  as  affectionate  as 


Drawn  by  C.  B.  Hudson. 


A  FIGHT  IN  THE  TREE-TOPS. 
Old  male  Orang-Utans,  with  cheek  callosities. 


"THE  MISSING  LINK"  21 

human  children  and  are  very  fond  of  their  human  friends.  In 
the  jungles  of  Borneo  the  full-grown  males  often  fight  sav- 
agely by  biting  each  other's  faces  and  by  biting  off  fingers 
and  toes.  At  night  the  Orang  makes  a  nest  to  sleep  upon, 
by  breaking  off  leafy  branches  and  laying  them  crosswise  in 
the  forked  top  of  a  sapling.  On  this  huge  nest-like  bed  it 
lies  flat  upon  its  back,  grasps  a  branch  firmly  in  each  hand 
and  foot,  and  is  rocked  to  sleep  by  the  cradle-like  swaying  of 
the  tree-top. 

Unless  attacked  at  close  quarters,  in  their  forest  homes, 
none  of  the  great  apes  are  dangerous  to  man.  All  of  them  flee 
quickly  from  the  dreaded  presence  of  Man,  the  Destroyer. 
They  never  fight  with  clubs,  but  when  attacked  at  close  quar- 
ters they  bite,  just  as  do  human  roughs.  When  enraged,  the 
gorilla  does  beat  its  breast  with  its  fists,  just  as  Du  Chaillu 
said;  and  it  does  this  even  in  captivity. 

"THE  MISSING  LINK."  —For  thirty  years  at  least,  Science 
has  been  seeking  in  the  earth  for  fossil  remains  of  some 
creature  literally  standing  between  man  and  the  great  apes, 
but  at  present  unknown.  In  1879,  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  made 
for  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  a  thorough  examination 
of  the  deposits  on  the  floors  of  some  of  the  caverns  of  Borneo. 
To-day,  some  naturalists  are  straying  toward  the  lemurs  in 
search  of  the  parent  stem  of  man's  ancestral  tree.  Vain 
quest!  The  gap  between  Man  and  Lemur  is  too  great  to  be 
bridged  in  this  world.  A  coincidence  between  skull  bones  is 
a  long  way  from  manlikeness. 

In  1913  there  was  discovered  at  Piltdown,  England,  a  fos- 
sil human  skull  of  great  antiquity,  with  a  strongly  ape-like 


22  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

lower  jaw.  This,  with  the  Neanderthal  man  and  other  fossil 
human  remains,  tends  to  bring  man  down  nearer  to  the  apes. 
It  now  remains  for  Africa  completely  to  bridge  the  chasm  by 
revealing  fossil  remains  of  apes  trending  upward,  well  above 
the  living  species  of  gorillas  and  chimpanzees. 

Place  upon  the  shoulders  of  a  gorilla  the  head  of  a  chim- 
panzee, and  we  would  have — what?*  The  Missing  Link,  no 
less— a  hairy,  speechless  man!  The  man-apes  we  have.  Let 
those  who  seek  the  undiscovered  ape-man  search  the  Ter- 
tiary deposits  of  the  fertile  uplands  that  lie  between  the  gloomy 
equatorial  forests  of  the  black  apes  and  the  Bushmen  of  South 
Africa;  for  there,  if  anywhere,  will  the  Missing  Link  be 
found. 

THE  GIBBONS. — From  the  three  huge,  coarsely  formed, 
and  unwieldy  manlike  apes  just  described,  the  line  of  de- 
scent drops  abruptly  and  far.  Their  nearest  relatives  are  the 
Gibbons — creatures  of  small  size,  marked  delicacy  of  form,  no 
weight  or  strength  to  speak  of,  but  of  marvellous  agility  in 
the  tree-tops.  Their  heads  are  small  and  round,  their  teeth 
are  weak,  and  their  faces  are  like  those  of  very  tiny  old  men. 

Their  arms  and  hands  are  of  great  length  in  proportion  to 
their  body  size,  yet  so  very  slender  are  their  muscles  that  a 
live  Gibbon  seems  like  a  hairy  skin  drawn  over  a  skeleton. 
The  largest  specimen  I  measured  in  Borneo  had  the  following 
remarkable  dimensions:  head  and  body,  19  inches;  extent  of 
outstretched  arms  and  hands,  5  feet  1  inch;  entire  reach  of 
arms  and  legs  from  finger-tips  to  ends  of  toes,  5  feet  1  inch; 
hand,  6J^  inches  long  by  1  inch  wide;  weight,  10^  pounds. 

Of  Gibbons  there  are  about  six  species,  and  they  inhabit 


1 


FEMALE   ORANG-UTAN  AND  YOUNG. 
Drawn  from  specimens  living  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  by  A.  G.  Doring. 


THE   GIBBONS  25 

Borneo,  Sumatra,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Burma,  and  Siam. 
With  the  GRAY  GiBBON,1  of  Borneo,  I  am  well  acquainted; 
and  after  the  three  great  manlike  apes,  it  is  to  me  the  most 
wonderful  of  anthropoids.  They  are  very  timid,  the  shyest 
of  all  Primates  that  I  ever  hunted,  and  wonderfully  successful 
in  eluding  the  hunter.  Nevertheless,  so  strong  is  their  affec- 
tion for  their  young,  I  have  seen  a  whole  troop  that  had 
made  good  its  escape,  return  at  the  call  of  an  infant  Gibbon 
in  trouble,  and  all  reckless  of  their  own  safety  come  down 
within  twenty  feet  of  their  deadly  enemy.  Very  few  other 
mammals  will  do  this. 

The  most  wonderful  habit  of  the  Gibbon  is  its  flight  down- 
hill when  pursued.  Of  course  it  never  dreams  of  descending 
to  the  earth,  but  in  the  half -open  hill  forests  of  Borneo  I  have 
seen  these  creatures  go  downward  through  the  tree-tops,  in  a 
straight  course,  leaping  incredible  distances,  catching  with 
their  hands,  swinging  under,  catching  with  their  feet,  turn- 
ing again,  and  so  on  by  a  series  of  revolutions,  almost  as  fast 
as  the  flight  of  a  bird. 

THE  SiAMANG,2  of  Sumatra,  is  the  largest  and  rarest  of 
the  Gibbons.  It  is  jet-black,  all  over,  face  as  well  as  fur, 
and  it  has  a  throat  pouch  which  is  distended  to  astounding  pro- 
portions when  it  utters  its  peculiar,  piercing  cry.  This  species 
is  as  rare  in  captivity  as  the  gorilla,  and  the  only  specimen 
seen  alive  in  the  New  World  up  to  1914  was  exhibited  at  the 
New  York  Zoological  Park  in  1903. 

1  Hy-lo-ba'tes  leu-cis'cus.  2  Sym-pha-lan' gus  syn-dac'ty-lus. 


APES  AND  MONKEYS 


OLD  WORLD  MONKEYS  AND  BABOONS 

Cercopithecidae 

TYPICAL  OLD  WORLD  MONKEYS. — Asia,  Africa,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  contain  a  great  number  of 


JAPANESE   RED-FACED   MONKEY. 
Note  the  narrow  space  between  the  nostrils. 


species  of  monkeys.  The  most  northern  is  the  sturdy  JAPA- 
NESE RED-FACED  MONKEY,  with  no  tail  to  speak  of.  It  is 
clothed  with  long,  shaggy  hair,  and  those  in  the  New  York 
Zoological  Park  live  outdoors  all  winter,  and  gallop  about  in 


OLD  WORLD  MONKEYS  27 

the  snow  without  catching  cold.     Their  tempers  are  quite  as 
warm  as  their  blood. 

From   Japan,   monkey-land   extends    southward   through 
China  and  southern  Asia  generally,  over  the  Malay  islands 


DIANA  MONKEY. 

almost  to  Australia,  and  throughout  the  whole  of  Africa  ex- 
cept its  great  deserts,  to  the  extreme  south. 

Of  all  these  Old  World  species,  none  have  prehensile  (grasp- 
ing) tails,  like  many  American  species.  Many  of  them  are 
beautifully  colored,  however,  and  the  markings  of  some  are 
quite  fantastic.  The  DIANA  MONKEY,  of  West  Africa,  is 
elaborately  marked  with  black,  white,  gray,  and  brown,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  monkeys.  An  Old  World 
monkey  can  nearly  always  be  recognized  by  the  very  narrow 
space  between  the  nostrils. 


28  APES  AND   MONKEYS 

SHORT-TAILED  MONKEYS. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that 
because  the  tail  of  a  monkey  is  so  short  as  to  be  scarcely 
visible,  the  wearer  is  therefore  a  true  ape.  There  are  several 
baboon-like  animals  with  tails  exceedingly  short  and  insig- 


N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 

DEAD   GELADA  BABOON. 

Note  the  lion-like  aspect. 

nificant,  but  which  are  far  removed  from  the  true  apes. 
Some  of  these  are  called  apes,  but  they  are  all  much  lower  in 
the  scale.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are: 

The  Black  "Ape"  of  Celebes; 

The  Barbary  "Ape"  of  Gibraltar  and  North  Africa; 

The  Pig-tailed  Macaque  (pronounced  Ma-cak')  of  the 
East  Indies,  east  of  Ceylon,  and 

The  Japanese  Red-faced  Monkey. 


OLD  WORLD  BABOONS  29 

THE  BABOONS. — In  nearly  every  portion  of  Africa  abound- 
ing in  rocky  hills  covered  with  scanty  vegetation  may  be 
found  Baboons, — fierce  of  aspect,  domineering  in  temper, 
strong  of  limb,  and  sometimes  very  ugly  in  countenance. 
Their  noses  are  long  and  dog-like.  They  live  on  the  ground, 
travel  in  troops  of  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  and  rob  grain- 
fields  with  great  boldness.  It  is  asserted  by  African  explorers 
that  even  hungry  lions  prefer  to  let  them  alone.  The  canine 
teeth  of  an  adult  Baboon  are  so  long  and  sharp  that  they  are 
dangerous  weapons.  Without  exception,  Baboons  are  the 
most  fierce-tempered  animals  of  all  the  Primates,  not  even 
excepting  the  great  apes,  which  never  fight  when  they  can 
run  away. 

All  told  there  are  about  twenty-one  species  of  Baboons,  all 
of  w7hich  are  found  in  Africa,  outside  of  the  dark  forests  of 
the  equatorial  regions.  The  great  GELADA  BABOON,1  of  Abys- 
sinia, is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  animals.  It  is  like 
a  small  lion,  with  a  Baboon's  feet  and  hands;  but  its  wonder- 
ful grimaces  are  peculiar  to  itself. 

A  Baboon  of  average  size  stands  24  inches  in  height  at  the 
shoulders,  and  weighs  about  45  pounds.  The  majority  of  the 
species  are  of  a  yellowish  color,  mixed  with  brown.  The 
MANDRILL  is  known  everywhere  by  its  brilliant  blue  and 
scarlet  muzzle,  and  yellow  chin  beard. 

1  The-ro-pith'e-cus  ge-la'da. 


30  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

NEW  WORLD  MONKEYS 

All  the  monkeys  of  the  New  World  are  marked  by  the  wide 
space  between  the  nostril  openings,  and  nearly  all  the  larger 
species  possess  prehensile,  or  grasping,  tails,  that  are  as  use- 
ful as  a  fifth  arm  and  hand.  Most  of  the  species  which  do 
not  have  prehensile  tails  are  quite  small.  Of  the  clinging- 
tailed  monkeys  there  are  three  important  groups,  which  are 
represented  in  North  America.  They  are  the  Sapajous,  the 
Spider  Monkeys,  and  Howlers. 

The  American  monkey  most  frequently  seen  in  captivity 
is  the  WHITE-THROATED  SAPAJOU1  (sap'a-jew)  or  CAP'U- 
CHIN,  called  by  animal  dealers  and  showmen,  the  "  Ring- 
Tail."  This  monkey  is  a  kind-spirited  and  affectionate  little 
creature,  and  rarely  gives  way  to  bad  temper.  It  has  a 
wrinkled  and  care-worn  face,  as  if  burdened  with  sorrows— 
which  most  captive  monkeys  certainly  are!  Its  forehead, 
throat,  and  shoulder  points  are  white,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  body  is  either  gray,  brown,  or  jet-black.  The  Sapajous 
inhabit  Central  America  and  northern  South  America.  About 
two  hundred  specimens  are  brought  to  New  York  every  year, 
where  they  are  sold  by  dealers  at  prices  ranging  from  $10  to 
$15  each. 

THE  SPIDER  MONKEYS2  may  easily  be  recognized  by  their 
very  long,  slender  legs  and  tails,  and  small,  round  heads.  In 
color  they  are  usually  either  black  or  gray,  and  rarely  reddish 
brown.  As  they  swing  on  their  way  through  life,  always  using 
their  prehensile  tails  to  cling  with  or  to  swing  by,  they  have 

1  Ce'bus  hy-po-leu'cus.  2  At'e-les. 


NEW  WORLD  MONKEYS 


31 


a  very  uncanny  look,  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  are  called 
"Spider"  monkeys.  They  can  come  as  near  tying  themselves 
into  knots  as  living  mammals  ever  can. 


WHITE-THROATED  SAPAJOU. 

Note  the  wide  space  between  the  nostrils. 


When  fully  grown,  they  are  much  larger  than  the  sapa- 
jous,  but  are  weak,  unable  to  fight,  and  therefore  timid.  In 
a  cage  containing  several  species  of  monkeys,  they  are  always 


32  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

the  greatest  cowards,  and  often  are  heard  shrieking  from 
fright  at  imaginary  dangers.  They  are  dainty  feeders,  and 
very  difficult  to  keep  in  health  in  captivity.  Four  species 


BLACK-FACED   SPIDER  MONKEY. 

At'e-les  a'ter. 

are  found  north  of  Panama.  The  MEXICAN  SPIDER  MONKEY 
occurs  up  to  Latitude  23°,  and  is  the  most  northern  monkey 
on  this  continent. 

THE   OWL  MONKEYS. — Next   to   the   spider   monkeys   is 
found  a  group  often  represented  in  captivity,  the  members  of 


OWL  AND  SQUIRREL  MONKEYS  33 

which  are  distinguished  by  their  small  size,  their  round 
heads,  very  large,  owl-like  eyes,  and  long,  hairy  tails,  which 
are  not  prehensile.  As  their  staring  eyes  suggest,  these 
creatures  are  of  nocturnal  habits,  and  in  daylight  hours  are 
as  inactive  and  uninteresting  as  opossums.  Because  of  this, 
they  make  rather  uninteresting  pets;  but  being  good- 
tempered  creatures,  they  are  frequently  kept.  They  are 
sometimes  called  DOROU-COU'LIS.  They  are  found  from 
Central  America  to  southern  Brazil. 

THE  SQUIRREL  MONKEYS  of  northern  South  America  and 
Central  America  are  next  in  order,  and  in  activity  and  general 
liveliness  of  habit  they  make  up  for  all  that  the  owl  monkeys 
lack.  They  are  the  most  active  of  all  the  small  American 
monkeys,  and  are  so  nervous  and  unmanageable  that  they  are 
unfit  for  captive  life  elsewhere  than  in  cages.  The  COMMON 
SQUIRREL  MoNKEY,1  sometimes,  though  erroneously,  called  the 
TEETEE,  is  a  trim  little  yellow  fellow,  with  a  very  long  cranium, 
close-haired  head,  and  a  very  long  tail,  which  he  gracefully 
curls  up  over  his  own  shoulders  whenever  he  sits  down.  This 
species  comes  from  the  Guianas  and  Venezuela,  and  is  very 
common  in  captivity. 

This  creature  is  a  skilful  climber,  and  it  is  the  only  mam- 
mal I  ever  saw  which  could  exert  sufficient  lateral  pressure 
with  its  hands  and  feet  to  enable  it  to  climb  with  ease  a  per- 
fectly smooth,  right-angled  corner  of  wood  to  a  height  of 
six  feet. 

THE  SAKI  MONKEYS,  of  tropical  South  America  east  of 
the  Andes,  are  of  medium  size,  mostly  black  and  shaggy- 

1  Sai-mi'ri  sci-u're-a. 


34  APES  AND  MONKEYS 

haired,  and  sometimes  possessed  of  a  long,  black  chin  beard. 
They  are  always  marked  by  their  big,  heavily  haired  tails, 
which  are  long,  but  not  prehensile.  They  are  often  mistaken 
for  howling  monkeys.  They  are  difficult  to  keep  alive, 
seldom  live  to  reach  the  United  States,  and  for  this  reason 
are  likely  to  remain  but  little  known.  The  most  remarkable 
species  is  the  BLACK  SAKI,*  two  specimens  of  which  were 
placed  on  exhibition  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  in  1903. 

THE  UAKARI,  or  YARKEE,  MONKEYS,  of  which  there  are 
three  species,  all  found  in  Brazil,  have  the  shortest  tails  to 
be  found  amongst  American  monkeys.  The  BALD  YARKEE2 
of  the  Upper  Amazon  is  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  Japanese 
red-faced  monkey,  having  not  only  the  same  stubby  tail  and 
long,  shaggy  hair,  but  also  a  red  face!  Unfortunately  this 
species  is  one  of  the  rarest  in  all  America. 

THE  HOWLERS  are  rarely  seen  in  captivity,  because  it 
seems  almost  an  impossibility  for  man  to  find  food  which  they 
will  eat,  and  which  agrees  with  them. 

Between  the  two  sides  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  Howler  pos- 
sesses a  large  sound-box  of  cartilage — a  development  of  the 
hyoid  bone — which  gives  to  the  creature's  voice  a  deep  res- 
onance, of  a  very  unusual  character.  These  monkeys  de- 
light to  indulge  in  vocal  concerts,  and  the  deep  roar  of  their 
unearthly  voices  can  be  distinguished  at  a  distance  of  a  mile 
or  more. 

In  all  there  are  fourteen  species  of  Howling  Monkeys. 
Occasionally  young  specimens  of  the  GOLDEN  HOWLER  are 
brought  from  Venezuela  and  Guiana  to  New  York,  but  in 

1  Pi-the'cia  sa-tarias.  2  U-a-ka'ri-a  cal'va. 


MARMOSETS  35 

confinement  their  digestive  organs  are  easily  disturbed,  and 
they  seldom,  if  ever,  live  to  reach  maturity. 

THE  FAMILY  OF  MARMOSETS 

Callithricidae 

Lowest  in  the  scale  of  all  the  American  monkeys,  and  in 
fact  next  to  the  lemurs,  we  find  a  collection  of  small  and  odd- 
looking  creatures,  some  of  which  are  so  strangely  formed  that 
often  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  they  belong  to  the  Order 
of  Apes  and  Monkeys.  This  is  the  Family  of  MARMOSETS, 
the  members  of  which  are  distributed  variously  from  southern 
Mexico  to  southern  Brazil.  They  are  frequently  found  in 
the  stores  of  animal  dealers,  and  by  ladies  who  have  abundant 
time  for  their  care  are  often  prized  as  household  pets.  But 
they  are  very  delicate,  and  do  not  long  endure  the  strain  of 
being  on  public  exhibition.  Their  market  price  varies  from 
$3.50  to  $8. 

Without  exception  these  are  all  very  small,  delicately 
formed  creatures,  with  hairless  faces,  eyes  that  are  large  and 
bright,  and  long  tails.  Their  hair  is  long,  abundant,  and 
silky,  and  in  some  species  it  stands  up  on  the  top  of  the  head 
like  a  white  ruff.  As  these  frail  little  creatures  perch  motion- 
less in  their  cages,  and  focus  their  brown  eyes  upon  the  visitor, 
they  seem  more  like  little  toys  than  living  animals  of  Man's 
own  Order.  They  are  really  very  odd,  picturesque,  and  inter- 
esting. 

THE  PINCHE  MARMOSET1  is  a  good  representative  of  this 
group.  It  comes  from  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  is 

1  Mi'das  aed'i-pus. 


36 


APES  AND   MONKEYS 


about  as  large  as  a  small  chipmunk,  and  can  be  recognized 
anywhere  by  the  jaunty  bonnet  of  white  hair  which  stands 
stiffly  erect  on  the  top  of  its  head. 


Photo,  by  Jenness  Richardson. 

COMMON   MARMOSET. 

Of  marmosets  there  are  altogether  about  twenty-one 
species.  The  best-known  are  the  COMMON  MARMOSET,1  with 
a  fan  of  white  hairs  standing  stiffly  erect  above  each  ear, 
and  the  SILKY  MARMOSET,2  which  is  half  buried  in  a  mop  of 
long,  silky,  yellowish  hair. 

1  Mi' das  ros-a'li-a.  2  Cal'li-thrix  jac'chus. 


THE  MADAGASCAR  LEMURS  37 

THE  SUBORDER  OF  LEMURS 

Lemuroidea 

On  the  great  island  of  Madagascar  there  are  no  fewer  than 
thirty  species  of  lemurs,  many  of  them  very  beautiful  creatures, 
all  very  kind-spirited  and  inoffensive,  and  so  numerous  that 
some  travellers  have  declared  that  "every  bush  has  its  lemur." 
And  yet,  in  America,  these  creatures  are  about  as  little  known 
as  if  they  inhabited  Mars  instead  of  Madagascar.  During 
the  first  six  months  following  the  opening  of  the  Primates' 
House  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  at  least  twenty 
educated  and  intelligent  young  men  asked  how  to  spell  the 
word  "lemur." 

The  lemurs,  tarsiers,  and  aye-aye  constitute  the  lowest 
grand  division  of  the  Ape-and-Monkey  Order — Primates. 
Their  low  position  is  due  chiefly  to  their  long,  foxlike  muzzles, 
and  their  teeth,  which  are  not  monkey-like.  Their  hands 
and  feet,  however,  define  their  position. 

THE  RUFFED,  or  BLACK-AND-WHITE,  LEMUR*  is  the  hand- 
somest and  most  conspicuous  animal  in  this  strange  group. 
It  is  the  size  of  a  large  house  cat,  its  tail  is  very  long,  and  the 
creature  is  abundantly  clothed  with  long,  soft,  silky-fine  fur, 
jet-black  and  pure  white. 

Although  lemurs  have  large  eyes,  and  are  supposed  to  be 
night-prowlers,  they  are  fairly  active  in  the  daytime,  and  are 
not  at  all  disturbed  by  daylight.  They  are  charming  pets, 
very  affectionate,  easily  kept,  and  even  with  twenty  in  one 
large  cage  they  do  not  quarrel,  as  monkeys  are  so  prone  to  do. 

1  Le'mur  va'ri-us. 


38  APES  AND   MONKEYS 

KEEPING  MONKEYS  IN  CAPTIVITY. — Large  monkeys  need 
large  cages,  with  means  to  climb  and  swing.  Fine  hay 
should  cover  the  floor.  Cages  should  always  stand  three  feet 


Sanborn,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 

THE   RUFFED   LEMUR. 

above  the  floor  of  a  room,  and  while  the  ventilation  should 
be  good,  there  should  be  freedom  from  draughts.  The  tem- 
perature should  be  75°  F.,  kept  as  even  as  possible.  Food: 
boiled  rice  or  tapioca,  baked  or  boiled  potatoes,  ripe  bananas 
or  apples;  a  little  raw  meat,  finely  chopped;  dried  or  parched 
sweet  corn  that  is  easily  chewed ;  a  little,  stale  bread ;  occa- 


KEEPING  MONKEYS  IN  CAPTIVITY  39 

sionally,  a  small  raw  onion.  Permit  no  teasing;  feed  regu- 
larly, water  frequently,  and  keep  cages  clean.  When  monkeys 
become  ill,  carefully  ascertain  their  trouble,  then  treat  them 
the  same  as  one  would  treat  sick  children. 


CHAPTER  III 
ORDER  OF  FLESH-EATING  MAMMALS 

FERAE,  OR  CARNIVORA 

NORTH  AMERICA  contains  a  fine  array  of  animals  be- 
longing to  the  ORDER  FE'RAE,*  numbering  about  one 
hundred  and  forty-seven  species  north  of  Panama,  not  count- 
ing subspecies.     They  are  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

ORDER  FERAE 

APPROXIMATE   NUMBER   OF   FULL 

SPECIES    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 
FAMILIES  NORTH   OF   PANAMA  (1905) 

THE  CATS Fe'li-dae 14  Species. 

THE  DOGS Ca'ni-dae 37 

THE  MARTENS,  ETC Mus-te'li-dae 71 

THE  BEARS Ur' si-doe 16 

THE  RACCOONS,  ETC Pro-cy-orii-dae 9 

THE  CAT  FAMILY 

Felidae 

In  the  order  of  their  size,  the  five  largest  catlike  animals 
of  North  America  are  the  following:  Jaguar,  Puma,  Canada 
Lynx,  Red  Lynx,  and  Ocelot. 

Of  the  Cat  Family,  the  JAGUAR2  (pronounced  Jag'you-ar) 
is  not  only  the  largest,  but  also  the  handsomest  species  in 

1  From  Latin  je-rus,  meaning  a  wild  beast.     This  is  a  much  older  name  than 
Carnivora,  which  heretofore  has  been  generally  applied  to  this  group. 

2  Fe'lis  on'ca. 

40 


THE  JAGUAR  43 

America.  Of  yellow-and-black  cats  it  stands  next  in  size  to 
the  tiger,  but  in  form  it  is  not  so  finely  proportioned  as  the 
leopard.  It  is  of  massive  build,  throughout,  and  its  head  is 
very  large  for  the  height  and  length  of  the  animal.  Its  tail, 
however,  is  disproportionately  short. 

This  creature  has  a  golden-yellow  coat,  marked  on  the 
back  and  sides  by  large,  irregular  hollow  islands  of  black, 
called  rosettes — quite  different  from  the  smaller  and  more 
solid  black  spots  of  the  leopard.  Between  these  rosettes  run 
the  narrow  lines  of  yellow  ground-color,  like  the  streets  of  an 
oriental  city  on  a  map.  The  legs,  head,  and  under-parts  are 
marked  with  solid  black  spots.  An  animal  of  this  species  can 
always  be  recognized  by  its  large  rosettes,  large  head,  heavy  build, 
and  short  tail. 

The  Jaguar,  which  in  Mexico  and  South  America  is  called 
"el  Tigre"  (tee'gre),  is  found  as  far  north  as  southern  Texas, 
and  from  that  region  southward  to  the  limit  of  tropical  forests 
in  South  America.  A  female  specimen  which  once  lived  in 
the  New  York  Zoological  Park  measured  48  inches  in  length 
of  head  and  body,  its  tail  was  20  inches  long,  it  stood  24 
inches  high  at  the  shoulders,  and  weighed  120  pounds. 

In  killing  pigs,  cattle,  horses,  deer,  and  other  wild  animals, 
the  Jaguar  is  a  fierce,  powerful,  and  dangerous  beast;  but, 
like  all  other  wild  creatures,  it  is  afraid  of  man. 

It  is  my  belief  that  the  strength  of  the  jaws  of  the  Jaguar 
is  greater  in  proportion  to  its  size  than  that  of  any  other 
member  of  the  Cat  Family.  Of  this  power  we  once  witnessed 
in  the  Zoological  Park  a  tragic  illustration.  A  full-grown 
female  Jaguar  was  purchased  as  a  cage  mate  for  a  large  and 


44  FLESH-EATERS 

powerful  male,  named  "Lopez,"  from  the  interior  of  Para- 
guay. After  two  days'  preliminary  introduction  through 
their  cage  fronts,  the  two  animals  were  placed  together. 
No  sooner  had  the  female  entered  the  cage  of  Lopez  than 
he  rushed  upon  her,  seized  her  neck  between  his  jaws,  and 
by  a  square  bite  crushed  two  of  the  neck  vertebrae,  killing  her 
almost  as  quickly  as  if  her  head  had  Been  cut  off  with  an  axe. 
The  murderous  male  was  fully  one-fourth  taller,  and  was 
larger  in  every  way  than  the  female. 

THE  PUMA,  also  called  MOUNTAIN  "LION"  and  CouGAR,1 
is  the  most  widely  known  cat  animal  of  North  America.  It 
is  found  in  all  the  great  western  mountain  ranges  of  the 
United  States,  in  many  tracts  of  "bad  lands"  in  Wyoming  and 
Montana,  in  British  Columbia,  and  in  the  Adirondacks  and 
Florida.  Southward  it  ranges  over  table-lands  and  through 
tropical  forests,  all  the  way  to  Patagonia.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  most  abundant,  and  also  most  accessible,  in  Routt 
County,  Colorado,  where  it  is  easily  found  by  dogs,  chased 
into  low  trees,  and  shot  without  danger.  In  this  manner  Mr. 
John  B.  Goff  has  killed  nearly  three  hundred  Pumas,  "only 
two  of  which  fought  courageously." 

Hundreds  of  thrilling  stories  of  (imaginary)  adventures 
with  Pumas  have  been  written  and  printed,  but  in  reality 
this  animal  is  less  to  be  dreaded  than  a  savage  dog.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  true,  however,  that  it  occasionally  follows  belated 
hunters  or  travellers,  out  of  curiosity.  It  is  now  a  well-estab- 
lished fact  that  prowling  Pumas  do  sometimes  scream,  in  a 
manner  calculated  to  inspire  terror,  just  as  caterwauling  cats 

1  Fe'lis  con'co-lor,  and  other  species  and  races  recently  described. 


THE  PUMA  47 

frequently  do.  I  have  heard  Pumas  scream  precisely  like 
terrified  women  or  boys,  but  they  always  flee  from  man 
when  the  way  is  open. 

The  Puma  is  a  thin-bodied,  flat-sided  animal,  tall  for  its 
weight,  and  of  a  brownish-drab  color.  It  has  a  beautiful  face, 
and  is  a  handsome  creature.  Of  all  the  large  cats  of  the 
world,  it  is  by  far  the  best  climber.  It  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum development  in  Colorado,  and  also  its  finest  (tawny) 
color.  The  fine  male  specimen  killed  by  Colonel  Theodore 
Roosevelt  on  February  14,  1901,  near  Meeker,  Colorado, 
measured,  before  skinning,  exactly  8  feet  in  total  length,  and 
weighed  227  pounds.  I  regard  that  animal  as  fairly  rep- 
resenting the  maximum  size  attained  by  the  largest  species 
of  Puma. 

Our  Pumas  make  their  dens  among  rocks,  in  "washout" 
holes,  or  in  very  thick  brush  or  forests,  and  prey  upon  every 
living  creature  that  can  be  killed  and  eaten,  except  man. 
In  settled  regions  they  frequently  destroy  much  young  stock. 
Throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains,  they  are  dangerous  ene- 
mies of  the  mountain  sheep  and  mule  deer.  In  the  "bad 
lands"  of  Montana  I  once  saw  a  mule  deer  killed  which  had 
on  its  neck  a  twelve-inch  scar,  a  torn  ear,  and  the  beam  of 
one  antler  broken  off  half-way  up.  Apparently  these  injuries 
were  received  in  an  encounter  with  a  Puma,  and  a  fall  over 
a  cut  bank,  which  evidently  released  the  deer  from  its  sav- 
age assailant. 

The  young  of  the  Puma  vary  in  number  from  two  to 
five,  and  are  spotted.  Living  specimens  vary  in  value  from 
$30  to  $75,  according  to  age  and  size. 


48  FLESH-EATERS 

At  first  glance  the  OCELOT,  or  TiGER-CAT,1  seems  to  be  a 
small  leopard  with  a  pale-yellow  body -color.  Its  legs  are 
spotted,  but  instead  of  having  spots  on  its  body,  its  back 
and  sides  are  marked  with  irregular  stripes  and  bands  of 
black  which  run  lengthwise.  It  may  be  instantly  recognized 
by  its  horizontal  stripes,  for  the  like  are  not  possessed  by  any 
other  animal.  But  no  two  Ocelots*  are  ever  marked  exactly 
alike. 

This  animal  is  the  size  of  a  cocker  spaniel,  and,  being  a 
good  climber,  when  in  its  native  forests  it  spends  much  of 
its  time  on  the  lower  branches  of  trees,  watching  for  prey. 
It  feeds  chiefly  upon  small  quadrupeds  and  birds.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  dimensions  of  an  average  specimen:  Height, 
13  inches;  head  and  body,  30  inches;  tail,  15  inches;  weight, 
36  pounds.  It  is  frequently  taken  in  southern  Texas — its 
northern  limit — and  its  range  is  about  the  same  as  that  of 
the  jaguar.  In  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  it  has  been 
kept  outdoors  all  winter,  and  has  bred  and  reared  young 
very  successfully.  Like  most  small  yellow  cats,  Ocelots  are 
usually  bad-tempered.  The  value  of  a  living  specimen  is 
about  $30. 

THE  LYNXES  of  North  America  form  a  very  distinct  group 
of  short-tailed,  heavily  furred,  tree-climbing  cats,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  are  spread  throughout  nearly  all  portions  of 
the  continent  north  of  Mexico  which  are  yet  sufficiently 
wild  to  shelter  them  from  man.  They  inhabit  with  equal 
facility  forests,  mountains,  canyons,  sage-brush  plains,  and 
even  deserts.  They  prey  chiefly  upon  rabbits  and  hares, 

1  Fe'lis  pard-a'lis.     See  page  111. 


THE   CANADA  LYNX 


49 


grouse,  prairie-"  dogs,"  ground-squirrels,  and  any  other  living 
creatures,  except  porcupines,  which  they  can  catch  and  kill. 
They  are  not  courageous,  or  disposed  to  fight  except  when 


J 


Drawn  by  J.  Carter  Beard. 


CANADA  LYNX. 


cornered,  and,  so  far  as  voluntarily  attacking  human  beings 
is  concerned,  Lynxes  are  no  more  dangerous  than  rabbits. 

In  North  America  the  genus  Lynx  is  represented  by  two 
well-marked  types. 

THE  CANADA  LYNXX  is  a  heavily  furred,  short-bodied, 
long-legged,  bob-tailed  wild  cat  of  a  pepper-and-salt  gray 

1  Lynx  can-a-derisis. 


50  FLESH-EATERS 

color,  standing  about  18  inches  high  at  the  shoulders.  It  is 
readily  recognized  by  the  long  pencil  of  stiff,  black  hair  rising 
from  the  tip  of  each  ear,  and  its  huge,  hairy  paws.  Its  big 
eyes  and  long  side-whiskers  give  it  a  really  terrifying  coun- 
tenance, particularly  when  it  snarls.  To  the  lone  hunter 
who  camps  in  the  dark  and  gloomy  forests  inhabited  by  this 
creature,  it  seems  a  very  dangerous  animal;  but  in  reality 
it  is  not"  so.  Those  who  have  hunted  it  say  it  is  not  cou- 
rageous, and  at  close  quarters  is  easily  killed  with  a  stick. 
It  is  a  good  climber,  swims  well,  but  on  land  runs  rather 
poorly,  with  a  galloping  gait.  Although  found  in  a  few  local- 
ities in  the  northern  United  States,  its  real  home  is  in  the 
provinces  of  Quebec,  Ontario,  and  the  Northwest,  up  to 
Latitude  60°.  A  good  average-sized  male  specimen  collected 
by  Professor  Dyche  in  British  Columbia  measured  as  fol- 
lows: Height,  17^  inches;  head  and  body  length,  32  inches; 
tail,  5  inches;  girth,  17J^  inches. 

The  weight  of  a  full-grown  specimen  is  22  pounds,  and 
the  young  are  two  in  number.  This  species  is  rarely  seen 
in  captivity,  and  is  always  desired  by  zoological  parks  and 
gardens.  Living  specimens  are  worth  from  $10  to  $40  each. 

The  fur  of  this  lynx  is  now  valuable.  In  London  the  price 
of  fine,  large  skins  has  gradually  risen  from  $4.87  in  1882  to 
$39.85  in  1910. 

THE  BAY  LYNX1  is  also  called  the  RED  LYNX,  WILD  CAT, 
or  BOB  CAT,  according  to  the  locality  in  which  it  is  found. 
Owing  to  variations  in  its  color  and  in  other  characteristics 
several  subspecies  have  been  described,  but  these  are  too 

1  Lynx  ru'fus. 


THE   BAY  LYNX  OR  BOB   CAT 


51 


closely  related  to  the  type  to  be  set  forth  separately  here. 
This  species  is  marked  by  the  absence  of  the  long  ear-pencil 
of  the  Canada  lynx  (although  sometimes  a  small  pencil  is 
present),  by  the  small  feet  and  the  warm  brown  tone  in  the 
color  of  the  fur. 

Western  specimens  are  sometimes  so  strongly  marked 
with  round  black  spots  that  we  feel  impelled  to  recognize 
the  "  Spotted  Lynx  "  as 
a  distinct  species;  but 
when  we  find  others 
from  the  Atlantic  coast 
also  spotted,  besides 
others  of  the  standard 
reddish  gray,  we  are 
compelled  to  refer  all 
of  them  to  the  species 
of  the  Bay  Lynx.  In 
the  Atlantic  states  the 
standard  color  for  this 

animal  is  a  mixture  of  rusty  red,  gray,  and  blackish  brown, 
with  the  red  so  prevalent  as  to  have  given  a  name  to  the  crea- 
ture. In  the  West,  the  spotted  coat  is  more  common,  and 
occasionally  the  spots  are  strongly  marked  all  over  the  animal. 

The  face  of  the  Bay  Lynx  is  really  very  beautiful  and, 
when  not  too  fat  from  overfeeding  in  captivity,  the  body  is 
lithe  and  graceful.  When  kept  in  large  cages  in  the  open 
air  and  sunlight,  sheltered  from  storms,  and  not  overfed,  this 
animal  is  easily  kept  in  fine  condition.  In  artificially  heated 
buildings  they  do  not  thrive. 


E.  R.  Sanborn,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 
THE   OCELOT. 


52  FLESH-EATERS 

This  species  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  states  east  of  the 
Mississippi  which  contain  large  areas  of  rough  forests,  but 
is  most  numerous  in  Maine,  the  Carolinas,  Florida,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Tennessee.  In  the  "bad  lands"  and  mountains 
of  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  Texas  they  are  really 


Photo,  and  copyright  by  W.  L.  Underwood,  1902. 
BAY  LYNX. 

numerous,  and  feed  luxuriously  on  the  cottontail  rabbits  that 
are  now  so  abundant  in  those  regions.  Varieties  of  this  species 
extend  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast  states.  East  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  about  twenty  specimens  are  caught  alive  each 
year  and  offered  for  sale.  Their  value  when  caught  is  $10 
each,  and  the  supply  exceeds  the  demand. 

By  measurement  the  Red  Lynx  is  fully  as  large  as  the 


THE  DOG  FAMILY  53 

Canada  lynx.  The  largest  specimen  that  ever  came  into 
my  hands  (on  Pryor  Creek,  Montana)  measured  in  length 
of  head  and  body  31  inches,  tail  7  inches,  height  at  shoulder 
18  inches,  and  weighed  18  pounds.  The  largest  of  nine  speci- 
mens killed  by  Colonel  Roosevelt's  party  in  Routt  County, 
Colorado,  in  1901,  weighed  39  pounds.  One  killed  near  Ashe- 
ville,  North  Carolina,  in  1900,  is  reported  to  have  weighed 
51  pounds. 

No  lynxes  are  found  in  the  lowlands  of  the  tropics,  or  in 
South  America. 


THE  DOG  FAMILY 

Canidae 

Of  all  the  wild  creatures  of  North  America,  none  are  more 
despicable  than  wolves.  There  is  no  depth  of  meanness, 
treachery,  or  cruelty  to  which  they  do  not  cheerfully  descend. 
They  are  the  only  animals  on  earth  which  make  a  regular 
practice  of  killing  and  devouring  their  wounded  companions 
and  eating  their  own  dead.  I  once  knew  a  male  wolf  to 
kill  and  half -devour  his  female  cage  mate,  with  whom  he  had 
lived  a  year. 

In  captivity,  no  matter  how  well  yarded,  well  fed,  or 
comfortable,  a  wolf  will  watch  and  coax  for  hours  to  induce 
a  neighbor  in  the  next  cage  to  thrust  through  tail  or  paw, 
so  that  he  may  instantly  seize  and  chew  it  off,  without  mercy. 
But  in  the  face  of  foes  capable  of  defence,  even  gray  wolves 
are  rank  cowards  and,  unless  cornered  in  a  den,  will  not 
even  stop  to  fight  for  their  own  cubs. 


54 


FLESH-EATERS 


THE  GRAY  WOLF,  or  TIMBER  WOLF/  is  really  a  formidable 
animal,  but  in  its  dealings  with  men  it  has  learned  to  fear 
the  deadly  rifle,  the  poison  pot,  and  the  trap.  Storms,  cold, 
and  fatigue  affect  it  but  little,  and  its  powerful  teeth,  strong 
jaws,  and  wide  gape  enable  it  to  bite  with  great  cutting  power. 

In  fighting  with  dogs, 
every  well-aimed  snap 
means  either  a  deep 
wound  or  a  piece  of 
flesh  bitten  out. 

The  type  of  this 
.  species  is  a  strong,  ro- 
bust animal,  cunning 
and  merciless.  Its 
winter  coat  is  long, 
shaggy,  and  coarse- 


GRAY  WOLF. 

color    is   mixed   black 

and  white,  but  it  varies  greatly  and  unaccountably.  In  Florida 
it  is  often  black,  in  Texas  reddish  brown,  and  in  the  far  North 
it  varies  from  black  to  white.  Although  in  some  localities 
it  is  called  the  Timber  Wolf,  it  is  equally  at  home  on  the 
treeless  prairies  of  the  West,  in  the  dark,  evergreen  forests 
of  British  Columbia,  and  on  the  desolate  barren  grounds  of 
arctic  America. 

Although  once  very  abundant  on  the  Great  Plains,  the 
coming  of  the  cattle  ranchman  and  sheep-herder  provoked 
against  the  Gray  Wolf  and  coyote  a  relentless  war  of  extermi- 

1  Ca'nis  oc-ci-den-tal'is. 


THE  GRAY  WOLF  55 

nation,  which  is  still  being  waged.  Several  states  in  the  cattle 
country  of  the  Great  Plains  offer  cash  bounties  on  wolf  scalps 
ranging  from  $2  to  $20,  and  large  sums  of  money  have  been 
paid  out  for  them.  In  Montana  the  number  of  wolves  has 
so  greatly  diminished  that  in  the  course  of  a  month  in  the 
saddle  in  1901,  in  wild  country,  no  Gray  Wolves  were  seen, 
and  only  four  coyotes.  Wolves  have  now  become  so  scarce 
that  the  occupation  of  the  professional  "wolfer"  is  almost 
gone. 

Nevertheless,  even  on  the  cattle  plains,  the  Gray  Wolf 
is  very  far  from  being  extinct;  and  as  long  as  the  "bad 
lands"  remain,  with  their  thousands  of  washout  holes,  and 
tens  of  thousands  of  rabbits,  the  gray  marauder  will  remain. 
In  the  far  North,  above  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in  the  land 
of  the  musk-ox,  in  1899,  Mr.  C.  J.  Jones  and  his  companion 
were  so  beset  by  packs  of  huge  and  fierce  White  Wolves, 
seeking  to  devour  their  five  living  musk-ox  calves,  that  for  over 
forty-eight  hours  they  fought  them  continuously  at  short 
range,  killing  a  wolf  at  every  shot. 

The  young  of  the  Gray  Wolf  are  usually  five  in  number, 
and  are  born  early  in  May.  At  first  they  are  of  a  sooty- 
brown  color,  and  are  distinguishable  from  coyote  puppies 
by  the  large  size  of  the  head.  One  which  was  examined 
when  four  days  old  measured  9J^  +  3  inches,1  and  weighed 
16  ounces.  When  twenty  days  old,  it  was  15+4  inches,  and 
weighed  4J/2  pounds. 

The  cry  of  the  Gray  Wolf  is  a  prolonged,  deep-chested 
howl,  corresponding  with  B-flat  below  middle  C,  not  broken 

1  That  is,  head  and  body,  9j/2  inches;   tail,  3  inches. 


56  FLESH-EATERS 

into  a  bark,  like  the  cry  of  the  coyote.  When  seen  at  home, 
the  Gray  Wolf  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  coyote, 
even  at  a  distance,  by  the  way  it  carries  its  tail, — pointing 
above  the  horizon. 

Gray  Wolves  hunt  in  packs,  often  in  relays,  and  suc- 
cessfully pull  down  deer,  antelope,  and  wounded  animals  of 
all  sizes.  In  the  cattle  country  their  specialty  is  the  destruc- 
tion of  calves  and  colts.  Except  in  the  far  North,  they 
know  well  what  firearms  are,  and  are  very  careful  to  keep 
out  of  rifle-shot. 

To-day  the  range  of  the  Gray  Wolf  embraces  the  Great 
Plains  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  from  Mexico  to  the 
northern  limit  of  land.  Lockwood  and  Brainard  found 
tracks  of  a  Gray  Wolf  at  Latitude  83°  24'.  In  Alaska,  ani- 
mals of  this  species  grow  larger  than  in  the  United  States, 
and  frequently  are  white  instead  of  gray.  A  fairly  large 
Gray  Wolf  is  48J/£+15K  inches  long,  stands  26  inches  high  at 
the  shoulders,  and  has  a  girth  measurement  of  29}/£  inches. 
(L.  L.  Dyche.) 

THE  COYOTE,  or  PRAIRIE  WoLF,1  is  about  one-third 
smaller  than  the  gray  wolf,  but  in  form  and  color  the  two 
species  look  very  much  alike.  It  carries  its  tail  low — hum- 
bly— as  befits  a  cowardly  animal.  It  is  not  dangerous  to 
man,  and  never  was,  and  is  bold  only  in  the  persistence  with 
which  it  hangs  upon  the  outskirts  of  civilization  and  prowls 
around  ranches  in  quest  of  food. 

The  delicacy  of  the  Coyote's  judgment  in  keeping  always 
beyond  fair  gunshot  is  truly  wonderful.  If  he  is  not  a 

1  Ca'nis  la'trans,  and  related  forms. 


THE  COYOTE 


57 


mind-reader,  his  actions  belie  him.  Twice  in  Montana,  each 
time  for  two  weeks,  I  tried  my  utmost  to  shoot  a  Coyote; 
but  during  those  periods  not  one  would  offer  more  than  a 
running  shot  at  three  hundred  yards  or  more.  Twice,  how- 
ever,— and  immediately  after  these  experiences, — when  I  was 
riding  quite  unarmed,  have  Coyotes  sat  down  beside  the  trail, 
waited  for  me  to  approach  within  forty  yards,  then  yawned 
in  a  bored  manner, 
and  slowly  trotted  off. 
It  is  my  belief  that 
those  animals  knew 
perfectly  well  my  in- 
ability to  shoot. 

The  food  of  Coyotes 
consists  chiefly  of  prai- 
rie-"dogs,"  ground- 
squirrels,  sage-grouse, 
hares,  and  rabbits. 
The  largest  animals 
ever  killed  by  them 
are  deer  and  prong-horned  antelope.  From  the  ranchman 
they  steal  poultry,  pigs,  lambs,  and  sheep.  They  "den"  in 
"washouts,"  or  deep  holes  in  the  cut  banks  of  ravines,  and 
rear  from  five  to  seven  puppies  every  May. 

The  cry  of  the  Coyote  is  a  dog-like  yelping,  half  howl  and 
half  bark;  whereas  the  call  of  the  gray  wolf  is  a  prolonged 
and  steady  deep-bass  howl.  As  far  as  they  can  be  heard, 
these  wolves  can  be  distinguished  by  their  cries,  and  to 
those  who  have  camped  on  the  plains,  or  in  the  wild  and 


N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 


COYOTE. 


58  FLESH-EATERS 

weird  "bad  lands"  of  the  great  West,  the  high-pitched,  stac- 
cato cry  of  the  Coyote,  as  he  announces  the  coming  dawn, 
is  associated  with  memories  of  vast  stretches  of  open  coun- 
try, magnificent  distances,  fragrant  sage-brush,  and  freedom. 
The  specific  name  of  this  animal  (latrans)  means  "barking," 
and  was  bestowed  on  account  of  its  peculiar  dog-like  cry. 

The  Coyote  ranges  from  the  latitude  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
northward  through  the  Great  Plains  and  Rocky  Mountain 
region  to  Alberta.  The  size  of  my  best  Montana  specimen 
was  37%  + 16  inches  in  length  and  20%  inches  in  height  at 
the  shoulders. 

Coyotes  vary  in  color  from  the  typical  pepper-and-salt 
gray  to  yellowish  gray,  the  latter  being  found  in  the  South- 
west. At  rare  intervals,  black  specimens  occur. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  FOXES 
(NORTH  OF  MEXICO) 

RED  Fox  GROUP:    GENUS  Vulpes 


ENGLISH   NAME  LATIN   NAME  LOCALITY 

RED  Fox Vulpes  fulvus    (Desmarest) .  .  Virginia  to  Alaska. 

Vulpes  fulvus  decussatus     New  York  to  Man- 
(Desmarest) itoba. 


CROSS  Fox 


BLACK  Fox 


Vulpes  fulvus  argentatus     Northwest      Terri- 


(Shaw) tory,  Alaska. 

PLAINS  Fox Vulpes  macrourus  (Baird) .  .  .  Great  Plains. 

T,             T-,  I  Vulpes    harrimani    (Mer- 1  •«-,.,   T     A1     , 

KADIAK  Fox j      riam)  I  ^adiak  I.,  Alaska. 

NEWFOUNDLAND  Fox .  .  Vulpes  deletrix  (Bangs) Newfoundland. 

SWIFT  Fox Vulpes  velox  (Say) The  Great  Plains. 

LARGE-EARED  Fox Vulpes  macrotis  (Merriam). .  .Southern  California. 

T^          T7  ,  ,T  .  x  1  Polar  regions  of  both 

ARCTIC,  OR  BLUE  rox.  .  Vulpes  Laqopus  (Linnaeus)          ,        .     , 

hemispheres. 


HALL  ISLAND  Fox Vulpes  hallensis  (Merriam) 


Hall    Island,   Bering 
Sea. 


THE  RED   FOX 


59 


GRAY  Fox  GROUP:    GENUS  Urocyon 


ENGLISH   NAME 


GRAY  Fox 

FLORIDA  GRAY  Fox 

SCOTT'S  GRAY  Fox. 

TEXAS  GRAY  Fox.  . 

COAST  GRAY  Fox.  . 

TOWNSEND'S  GRAY 
Fox. 


LATIN   NAME 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
(Schreber) 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
floridanus  (Rhoads) 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
scottii  (Mearns) 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
texensis  (Mearns) 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
calif ornicus  (Mearns) .  .  . 

Urocyon  cinereo-argenteus 
townsendi  (Merriam) .... 


LOCALITY 

Southeastern  states. 

Florida. 

New  Mexico  to 
Southern  Califor- 
nia. 

Texas. 

Southern  California. 

Northern  California. 


THE  RED  Fox.1 — Of  the  handsome  and  valuable  species 
of  foxes  inhabiting  North  America,  our  wise  old  friend,  the 
Red  Fox,  is  the  one  most  widely  distributed  and  the  best 
known.  Between  the  southern  Alleghenies  and  Point  Bar- 
row it  appears  in  coats  of  many  different  shades,  but  every- 
where it  is  recognizable  by  the  prevailing  yellowish-red  color 
from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It  is  palest  in  the  desert 
regions,  where  shade  is  scarce,  and  brightest  in  the  forest 
regions  and  Alaska,  where  the  bleaching  power  of  the  sun 
is  not  so  great.  The  largest  and  finest  skins  come  from 
Alaska,  and  values  decrease  southward.  An  Alaskan  Red 
Fox  skin  (No.  1,  large)  is  worth  $12;  in  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  $9;  Maine,  $8;  New  York,  $7;  Pennsylvania,  $5; 
Southern  states,  $4.25.  Amateur  fox  farmers  will  do  well 
to  note  these  prices  when  locating  their  farms.  The  world's 
annual  output  of  Red  Fox  skins  is  estimated  by  an  expert  at 

1  Vid'pes  fid'vus. 


60 


FLESH-EATERS 


1,165,000, — for  America,  Europe,  Asia,  and  Australia.  In 
the  London  market  the  price  of  the  finest  skins  has  risen 
from  $2.50  in  1896  to  $16.55  in  1910.  This  is  due  to  the 
decreasing  annual  supply. 

The  range  of  the  Red  Fox  is  very  wide.     From  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee  it  extends  through  the  whole  north- 

eastern  United  States, 

westward  to  Montana, 
and  northward  to  the 
limit  of  trees.  It  is  the 
most  common  fox  in 
Alaska,  wherever  there 
are  trees.  It  is  so  cun- 
ning and  so  well  able 
to  take  care  of  itself, 
even  in  populous  coun- 
tries, that  it  refuses  to 
an  average  specimen  is 


Sanborn,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 
RED   FOX. 


be   exterminated.      The   length   of 
24+13  inches;   height,  13  inches. 

There  is  little  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  foxes  kept  in 
captivity  as  pets.  They  are  very  nervous,  easily  frightened, 
and,  as  a  rule,  are  totally  lacking  in  all  the  sentiments  which 
resemble  affection.  Nevertheless,  we  have  seen,  and  also 
owned,  Red  Foxes  that  were  tame  and  partially  trustworthy 
when  handled. 

THE  CROSS  Fox  is  really  a  color  phase  of  the  red  fox, 
marked  by  black  legs  and  under-parts,  a  dark-colored  cross 
on  the  shoulders,  steel-gray  body  and  head,  and  a  big  black 
tail  with  a  snow-white  tip.  There  is  a  reddish  patch  behind 


COMMERCIAL  VALUE   OF   BLACK  FOXES 


61 


the  fore  leg,  and  another  on  the  side  of  the  neck.  In  my 
opinion  a  really  typical  Cross  Fox  is  the  handsomest  fox  in 
the  world,  far  more  beautiful  than  the  much-sought  "silver 
fox."  Some  day  it  will  win  the  appreciation  it  deserves, 
and  be  sought  accordingly.  It  stands  between  the  red  and 
the  black  foxes,  and  grades  into  both.  It  is  found  in  Mani- 
toba, Alberta,  British 
Columbia,  and  Alas- 
ka, and  occasionally 
in  Idaho  and  Utah. 

THE  BLACK  Fox, 
commonly  called  the 
"Silver  Gray"  Fox 
(although  there  is  no 
silvery  color  about  it, 
save  its  tail-tip),  en- 
joys the  distinction  of 
having  the  highest 

price  on  his  head  that  is  offered  for  any  fur-bearer.  In  March, 
1900,  a  single  skin  of  this  animal  sold  at  auction  in  London 
for  $2,784;  and  it  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  extra  fine  skins 
to  sell  in  this  country  at  from  $600  to  $1,200.  They  are 
worth  so  much  as  furs  for  the  very  wealthy  that  zoological 
gardens  cannot  afford  to  purchase  live  specimens  for  exhi- 
bition. Their  exhibition  value  is  far  below  their  fur  value. 

Like  the  cross  fox,  this  is  only  a  color  phase  of  the  typical 
red  fox,  but  commerically  the  two  forms  are  so  distinct,  and 
so  sharply  defined  in  dollars  and  cents,  that  they  demand 
separate  notice. 


Drawn  by  J.  Carter  Beard. 

BLACK,   OR   "SILVER"    FOX. 
A  subspecies  of  the  Red  Fox. 


62  FLESH-EATERS 

With  the  exception  of  its  snow-white  tail-tip,  and  a  few 
scattering  white  hairs  on  the  top  of  the  hind  quarters,  a  typical 
Black  Fox  is  jet-black.  This  form  inhabits  the  same  locali- 
ties as  the  cross  fox,  and  is  much  given  to  mixing  with  it, 
which  causes  many  variations  from  their  standard  colors 
toward  the  typical  red  fox.  Both  these  animals  are  some- 
what larger  than  the  typical  red  f<5x  found  in  New  Eng- 
land. 

The  craze  in  London  for  skins  of  the  Black  Fox  to  wear 
is  only  surpassed  by  the  craze  in  Prince  Edward  Island  for 
living  specimens  with  which  to  start  Black  Fox  corporations. 
In  London,  Black  or  "Silver"  skins  sold  (1911)  at  an  average 
price,  for  the  whole  catch  of  "wild"  and  "ranch"  skins,  of 
$290.  In  1910  the  average  was  abnormally  high,  $414.  In 
1910,  twenty -seven  extra  choice  skins  from  Prince  Edward 
Island  sold  for  an  average  of  $1,361  each.  The  finest  speci- 
mens sometimes  sell  as  high  as  $2,700;  and  this  for  a  fur  that 
is  by  no  means  the  most  beautiful  fur  in  the  world,  not  even 
in  foxes,  and  is  of  limited  durability.  A  handsome  cross-fox 
skin  is,  as  a  color  proposition,  far  more  beautiful  than  the 
finest  Black  Fox;  but  the  craze  is  for  the  latter. 

The  London  craze  has  developed  on  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, and  incidentally  elsewhere  in  North  America,  a  genuine 
Black  Fox  "bubble."  Men  of  speculative  tendencies  are 
paying  as  high  as  $10,000  and  more  per  pair  for  live  breed- 
ing stock  with  which  to  start  more  fox  ranches  and  get  rich 
quick.  In  1912  the  whole  Prince  Edward  Island  Black  Fox 
output  was  sold  alive  on  this  basis. 

In  1912  the  fox-breeding  industry  in  Canada,  according 


FOX  FARMS  IN  CANADA  63 

to  "Fur  Farming  in  Canada,"  by  J.  Walter  Jones  (Conserva- 
tion Commission,  Ottawa),  was  as  follows: 

FOXES  IN  CAPTIVITY  IN  CANADA 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND 

RANCHES 

200 

BLACK 
650 

CROSS 

150 

BASTARD 
AND  RED 
1,000 

NOVA  SCOTIA 

13 

32 

30 

150 

NEW  BRUNSWICK 

8 

30 

10 

50 

QUEBEC           

6 

40 

10 

50 

ONTARIO      

14 

30 

40 

150 

OTHER  PROVINCES 

18 

10 

50 

241  800  250  1,450 

The  Black  Foxes  are  centred  at  the  following  points: 
Summerside,  Charlottetown,  and  Montague  in  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island;  Quebec  City  and  Piastre  Bay,  Quebec;  Wyo- 
ming, Ontario,  and  Carcross,  Yukon. 

THE  SWIFT  Fox,  or  KIT  Fox,1  is  the  smallest  and  dainti- 
est of  all  our  foxes.  Its  color  is  a  beautiful  silver-gray,  with 
a  tinge  of  yellow.  It  is  strictly  an  inhabitant  of  the  Great 
Plains  region  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Saskatchewan, 
but,  owing  to  the  readiness  with  which  it  eats  poisoned  meat 
that  has  been  put  out  for  wolves,  it  has  already  become  very 
scarce.  In  spite  of  its  name,  it  does  not  run  with  remarkable 
swiftness. 

THE  ARCTIC  Fox.2 — This  creature  of  the  polar  world  is 
a  striking  example  of  climatic  influences  on  a  species,  and 
also  of  the  danger  that  lies  in  describing  a  species  from  a 
single  specimen.  In  the  far  North,  the  Arctic  Fox  is  snow- 
white  all  the  year  round.  Farther  south  it  is  white  in 
winter,  but  in  summer  is  bluish  brown.  In  the  southern 

1  Vul'pes  ve'lox.  2  Vul'pes  la-go'pus. 


64 


FLESH-EATERS 


part  of  its  range,  the  Aleutian  Archipelago,  for  example,  ex- 
cept for  an  occasional  white  individual,,  it  is  dark  all  the  year 
round,  and  is  known  only  as  the  BLUE  Fox.  At  first  it  may 
seem  difficult  to  believe  that  these  two  widely  different  ex- 


THE   ARCTIC  FOX. 

tremes  are  only  color  phases  of  the  same  species;  but  it  is 
quite  true.  The  dark-colored  animal  is  not  even  accorded 
subspecific  rank. 

The  Arctic-Blue  Fox  is  a  simple-minded  creature,  of  san- 
guine temperament,  easily  trapped  and  handled,  and  ever 
ready  to  adopt  the  prepared  food  of  civilization.  In  its 
white  phase,  the  finest  skins  sell  in  London  at  $22  each. 
In  its  blue-brown  coat,  it  has  a  very  comical  countenance, 
characterized  by  much  hair,  close-cropped  ears,  and  a  total 


BREEDING  BLUE  FOXES  65 

absence  of  beauty;   but  its  fur,  when  taken  in  season,  is  worth 
in  the  London  market  from  $25  to  $70  per  skin. 

On  various  islands  along  the  Alaska  coast,  especially  in 
the  Aleutian  Archipelago,  about  thirty  commercial  companies 
and  individuals  are  engaged  in  breeding  Blue  Foxes  for  their 


GRAY  FOX. 


fur,  some  of  them  with  satisfactory  success.  The  foxes  are 
fed  daily,  on  cooked  corn-meal  and  dried  fish.  They  come 
up  to  be  fed,  and  when  the  time  comes  to  handle  and  sort 
them  previous  to  killing  the  annual  allotment,  they  greatly 
facilitate  matters  by  the  readiness  with  which  they  enter  box 
traps. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  none  of  the 
efforts  that  have  been  made  to  breed  the  Blue  Fox  were  suc- 
cessful. The  great  decrease  in  the  annual  supply  of  good  fur 


66  FLESH-EATERS 

has  caused  many  persons  to  hope  that  fox  breeding  may  be 
developed  into  a  remunerative  industry.  Except  as  already 
noted,  no  successful  experiments  in  that  line  have  been  made, 
and  it  is  quite  desirable  that  fox  breeding  in  the  United 
States  should  be  taken  up  under  state  or  national  auspices, 
and  wrought  out  to  a  successful  issue.  There  is  good  reason 
to  hope  and  believe  that  it  might  be  developed  into  an  im- 
portant industry. 

THE  GRAY  Fox1  is  the  fox  of  the  South,  but  it  ranges 
northward  far  into  the  home  of  the  red  fox.  It  is  noticeably 
smaller  than  the  latter,  pepper-and-salt  gray  above,  and 
rusty  brown  underneath,  with  a  red  patch  on  the  side  of  its 
neck.  For  a  fox  it  is  very  agile,  and  when  hard  pressed  by 
dogs  it  can  climb  small  trees  up  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet 
or  more. 

The  five  subspecies  of  the  Gray  Fox  extend  throughout 
the  southern  United  States  from  Florida  to  California. 

Besides  the  foxes  already  mentioned,  several  other  species 
and  races  are  recognized. 


THE  SMALL  FUR-BEARERS 

Mustelidae 

A  majority  of  the  valuable  fur-bearing  animals  of  North 
America  are  found  in  a  group  of  flesh-eaters  known  as  the 
Marten  Family.  It  contains  about  fifty  full  species,  and  its 
conspicuous  types  are  the  following: 

1  U-ro-cy'on  cin-e're-o-ar-gerite-us. 


THE  OTTER  67 

THE  MARTEN  FAMILY 

Mustelidae 

OTTER,  MINK,  WEASEL,  MARTEN:  These  four  types  are  marked  by  long, 
slender  bodies,  very  short  legs,  flattened  heads,  and  general  activity 
on  foot. 

WOLVERINE:   The  greatest  glutton  and  pest  in  this  Family. 

SKUNK:   Aggressive  and  destructive  pests;  valuable  fur-bearers. 

BADGER:   A  fat-bodied,  inert,  and  practically  harmless  burrower. 

The  great  demand  for  fur,  both  for  ornament  and  use, 
has  brought  about  the  systematic  destruction  of  all  fur- 
bearing  animals.  Many  species  that  once  were  numerous 
have  now  become  very  rare.  Formerly  the  wearers  of  fur 
accepted  nothing  less  desirable  than  beaver,  otter,  mink,  and 
marten.  To-day,  the  fur  of  the  skunk,  raccoon,  fox,  lynx, 
black  bear,  rabbit,  and  even  the  domestic  cat  are  in  active 
demand  for  garments  and  for  trimmings. 

THE  OTTER1  is  as  fond  of  water  as  a  seal,  and  quite  as 
much  at  home  in  fresh  water  as  on  land.  Its  regular  food 
consists  of  fish,  in  the  capture  of  which  it  is  very  expert. 
It  has  webbed  feet,  a  thick,  pointed  tail  distinctly  flattened 
for  use  in  swimming,  and  it  is  clothed  with  a  thick  coat  of 
very  fine,  dark-brown  fur.  Strange  to  say,  when  fairly  treated, 
the  Otter  is  a  good-tempered  animal,  tames  easily  when 
caught  young,  and  makes  an  interesting  pet.  In  a  public 
park,  one  Otter  is  worth  more  to  the  public  than  twenty 
beavers. 

In  the  days  when  they  were  numerous,  and  less  perse- 
cuted than  now,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  party  of 

1  Lu'tra  can-a-den'sis. 


68  FLESH-EATERS 

Otters  to  select  a  steep  and  slippery  river  bank,  and  slide 
down  it  repeatedly,  as  small  boys  slide  down  hill  on  sleds, 
except  that  each  slide  of  the  Otter  always  ended  in  a  plunge 
into  the  water. 

The  Otter  of  North  America  is  still  found  occasionally  in 
Florida  and  the  Carolinas,  the  Canadian  provinces,  in  a  few 
localities  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  r^ion,  and  from  British 
Columbia  to  central  Alaska.  Outside  of  Alaska  and  the  far 
North  its  fur  is  taken  so  rarely  that  it  has  ceased  to  be  re- 
garded as  an  article  of  commerce.  For  all  that,  however,  the 
annual  output  of  Otter  skins  for  all  North  America  is  said 
to  be  about  30,000.  The  value  of  the  animal  alive  for  ex- 
hibition purposes  is  from  $10  to  $40.  The  length  of  a  large 
northern  Otter,  head  and  body,  is  27  inches  and  tail  16  inches. 

The  unplucked  fur  of  the  Otter  is  the  most  durable  of  all 
furs,  and  it  is  ranked  at  100  in  the  scale  of  durability.  The 
Otters  of  land  and  sea  are  alike  in  this  respect. 

The  Otter  builds  no  house,  but  lives  in  a  bank  burrow, 
usually  under  the  spreading  roots  of  some  large  tree  growing 
near  the  water.  The  young  are  usually  two  in  number. 

THE  SEA  OTTER/  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  fur- 
bearing  animals,  is  literally  a  child  of  the  ocean  surges  and 
the  surf-beaten  rocks  of  the  rugged  north  Pacific  coast.  It 
is  born  at  sea,  on  a  bed  of  kelp,  and  literally  "rocked  in  the 
cradle  of  the  deep."  It  was  formerly  found  from  California 
to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  but  is  now  very  rare  except  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  Alaska.  There  the  pursuit  of  the  animal  is 
strictly  limited  by  law  to  the  natives,  to  whom  it  is  vitally 

1  La' tax  lu'tris. 


THE   SEA  OTTER 


69 


important,  and  a  white  man  may  not  kill  a  Sea  Otter  except 
under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  $500. 


MARTEN. 
MINK. 


The  fur  of  this  creature  is  extremely  valuable.     In  March, 
1909,  the  finest  skin  in  the  London  market  sold  for  $1,849.     A 


70  FLESH-EATERS 

full-grown  specimen  measures  from  3^  to  4  feet  in  length 
(head  and  body)  and  has  a  tail  11  inches  long.  Its  fur  is 
very  dense  and  fine,  and  in  color  is  a  shimmering,  lustrous 
black.  The  pursuit  of  the  Sea  Otter  usually  is  quite  danger- 
ous, but  to  the  natives  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  this  creature 
is  far  more  important  than  the  fur-soal.  Formerly  between 
five  thousand  and  six  thousand  skins,  worth  from  $100  to 
$500  each,  were  taken  annually,  and  formed  practically  the 
sole  dependence  of  the  natives  along  nearly  two  thousand 
miles  of  coast-line.  But  with  the  introduction  of  firearms,  and 
the  sealing  schooners,  the  Sea  Otter  has  been  almost  exter- 
minated. The  few  individuals  that  remain  are  widely  scat- 
tered, and  are  the  wildest  and  wariest  of  all  wild  creatures. 
In  1912  only  202  skins  appeared  in  the  London  fur  market. 

THE  MiNK1  is  much  smaller  than  the  otter,  yellowish 
brown  or  dark  brown  in  color,  and  while  it  prefers  to  live  along 
the  banks  of  streams,  it  is  not  an  aquatic  animal  like  the  otter. 
When  possible,  it  feeds  chiefly  upon  birds,  because  they  are 
easily  caught  and  killed,  and  when  opportunity  offers,  it  is  a 
wanton  murderer.  It  also  preys  upon  small  mammals  and 
fish,  whenever  it  can  procure  them.  In  the  Beaver  Pond  of 
the  New  York  Zoological  Park  a  murderous  Mink  once  killed 
six  wild  geese  in  one  night,  and  another  slaughtered  ten 
herring  gulls. 

A  full-grown  Mink  looks  very  much  like  a  large  weasel, 
having  a  long,  slender  body  and  very  short  legs. 

BREEDING. — It  has  been  proven  that  the  Mink  can  be 
successfully  bred  and  reared  in  captivity.  When  its  fur 

1  Lu-tre-o'la  vi'son,  and  related  species. 


THE  MINK  AND  THE   BLACK-FOOTED   FERRET        71 

doubles  in  value,  it  will  be  profitable.  Mr.  J.  Walter  Jones 
says  that  "there  have  been  hundreds  of  mink  ranches  in 
America,  and  there  are  probably  fifty  in  Canada  now."  But 
this  industry  is  conceded  to  be  "still  in  the  experimental 
stage."  In  the  London  fur  market  the  value  of  Mink  pelts 
has  risen  from  65  cents  in  1888  to  $6.34  in  1910. 

The  Mink  is  by  no  means  as  rare  as  the  otter,  and  even 
to-day  is  found  scattered  throughout  nearly  the  whole  of 
North  America,  as  far  as  the  limit  of  trees.  The  annual 
catch  of  skins  is  about  sixty  thousand.  The  round,  hairy 
tail,  chocolate-brown  or  yellowish-brown  color,  and  smaller 
size  of  this  animal  quickly  distinguish  it  from  all  other 
animals  of  its  Family.  The  body  of  a  full-grown  specimen  is 
about  as  thick  as  the  wrist  of  a  medium-sized  man.  The 
length  of  the  head  and  body  is  19  inches,  tail  7  inches.  In 
durability  the  fur  of  the  Mink  is  70  per  cent. 

THE  BLACK-FOOTED  FERRET,1  of  Kansas,  Colorado,  Wy- 
oming, and  Montana,  is,  to  many  persons  who  live  in  its 
home  country,  an  enigma.  In  1849  this  pretty  creature  was 
described  and  illustrated  by  Audubon  and  Bachman,  after 
which  it  totally  disappeared,  and  remained  a  mystery  until 
it  was  rediscovered  in  1886.  In  its  home  it  is  often  called 
the  PRAIRIE-" DOG"  HUNTER,  because  its  specialty  is  the  kill- 
ing of  prairie-"  dogs,"  and  it  is  nearly  always  found  in  the 
towns  of  that  jolly  little  animal.  It  can  be  recognized  at  a 
glance  by  its  black  feet,  brown  legs  and  black  tail-tip,  and  the 
cream-yellow  color  of  its  head  and  body.  Next  to  the  skin, 
the  fur  is  white,  and  there  is  a  broad  black  or  dark-brown 

1  Pu-to'ri-us  nig'ri-pes. 


72  FLESH-EATERS 

patch  across  the  nose,  including  both  eyes.  Its  length  of 
head  and  body  is  19  inches;  tail,  4  inches.  Regarding  its 
habits  and  life  history,  much  remains  to  be  ascertained  by 
the  young  naturalists  who  live  in  the  country  it  inhabits. 


BLACK-FOOTED  FERRET. 

THE  WEASEL,  of  which  many  species  and  races  have  been 
described,  is  the  smallest  animal  in  the  Marten  Family.1  Its 
legs  are  very  short  and  far  apart,  and  its  body  is  no  thicker 
than  a  man's  thumb,  but  it  is  of  such  great  length  that  the 
animal  is  positively  snakelike  in  its  proportions.  In  life  it 
is  very  odd  to  see  the  front  legs  walk  to  and  fro  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  hind  quarters.  Fifteen  full  species  have 

1  The  Least  Weasel  (Putorius  rixosus),  which  is  found  from  the  Saskatchewan 
to  Alaska,  is  said  to  be  the  smallest  Carnivore  in  the  world. 


THE   WEASEL  AND  THE  MARTEN  73 

been  described,  several  of  them  being  very  much  alike.  The 
COMMON  WEASEL,  or  ERMINE,1  is  brown  in  summer  and  white 
in  winter. 

The  Weasel  is  one  of  the  most  courageous  and  aggressive 
of  all  animals.  It  kills  rabbits,  grouse,  chickens,  and  ducks 
of  ten  or  twelve  times  its  own  size,  and  often  kills  ten  times  as 
many  chickens  as  it  can  eat,  purely  to  gratify  its  murderous 
disposition.  It  is  as  savage  as  a  tiger,  but  on  farms  it  often 
does  good  service  in  destroying  rats  and  field-mice.  Weasels 
are  so  small  their  fur  has  little  value,  but  the  time  is  coming 
when  it  will  eagerly  be  sought  and  used. 

THE  MARTEN2  looks  very  much  like  a  young  red  fox, 
and  in  size  it  is  about  as  heavy  as  a  large  domestic  cat.  Its 
head  and  body  length  is  17  inches,  and  its  tail  7  inches. 
The  body  is  brownish  yellow,  the  legs  are  two  or  three  shades 
darker,  and  it  has  three  kinds  of  hair.  It  loves  timber,  and 
spends  much  of  its  time  in  trees.  It  is  rarely  found  in  open 
country,  and  is  most  abundant  on  rugged  and  rocky  forest- 
covered  mountains. 

The  Marten  is  not  a  poultry-killer,  or  a  wanton  murderer 
of  more  game  than  he  can  eat,  but  he  lives  by  honest  hunting 
of  wild  game.  His  food  consists  of  small  rodents,  birds,  eggs, 
or  even  an  occasional  reptile.  In  the  United  States  this 
animal  is  now  rare,  for  its  fur  has  always  been  highly  prized. 
It  is  often  called  the  PINE  MARTEN.  As  a  fur-bearer  it  still 
is  an  important  animal,  and  the  annual  catch  for  North  Amer- 
ica reaches  the  high  total  of  about  120,000  skins.  In  dura- 
bility the  fur  of  the  Marten  is  65  per  cent. 

1  Pu-to'ri-us  er-min'e-a.  2  Mus-te'la  americana. 


74  FLESH-EATERS 

THE  FISHER,  or  PENNANT'S  MARTEN/  is  one  of  the  largest 
members  of  the  Marten  Family  in  America.  It  is  a  bold, 
active  tree-climber,  an  industrious  hunter,  an  aggressive 
fighter,  and  as  a  stealer  of  baits  it  is  almost  as  great  a  nuisance 
to  trappers  as  the  hated  wolverine.  With  this  animal,  "all's 
fish  that  cometh  to  net,"  and  with  equal  relish  it  devours 
dead  fish,  rabbits,  squirrels,  chipmunks,  ground  birds,  snakes, 
toads,  arid  frogs.  Occasionally  it  murders  its  own  cousin,  the 
pine  marten,  and  even  feeds  upon  the  Canada  porcupine. 

The  Fisher  is  at  home  in  the  swamps  or  the  rocky  moun- 
tainsides of  northern  New  York,  and  in  the  forest  regions  of 
North  America  generally  from  Maine  and  southern  Labrador 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  Northward  it  ranges  to  Great  Slave 
Lake  and  the  Yukon  River.  In  color  it  varies  from  glossy 
black  to  dark  brown,  with  occasional  gray,  or  grayish  white, 
on  head  and  neck,  chin,  chest,  and  abdomen.  Its  average 
length  is  23  +  14  inches.  The  young  vary  in  number  from 
two  to  three.  As  a  fur-bearer  this  is  a  rare  animal,  the  total 
annual  catch  for  North  America  being  only  10,000. 

THE  WOLVERINE,  or  CARCAJOU,2  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable animals  in  North  America.  It  is  about  the  size  of 
a  full-grown  bulldog,  has  a  ravenous  appetite,  great  strength, 
a  fierce  temper,  and  the  combined  cunning  of  many  genera- 
tions of  criminals.  It  is  the  greatest  thief  among  animals, 
and  is  such  a  greedy  feeder  that  it  is  known  to  many  as  the 
GLUTTON.  It  will  follow  a  trapper's  "line"  of  marten  traps, 
for  miles,  destroy  every  animal  it  finds  in  them,  devour  baits, 
and  sometimes  steal  the  traps  also. 

1  Mus-te'la  pen'nant-i.  2  Gu'lo  lus'cus. 


WOLVERINES  AND  SKUNKS  77 

It  breaks  open  caches,  raids  cabins,  and  systematically 
destroys  everything  it  encounters.  It  is  the  only  animal 
living  which  maliciously  and  deliberately  destroys  property, 
and  soils  food  which  it  can  neither  eat  nor  carry  away.  It 
steals  articles  which  it  cannot  possibly  use,  and  more  than 
once  has  been  known  to  strip  a  cabin  of  nearly  its  entire 
contents. 

In  form  this  animal  resembles  a  cross  between  a  badger 
and  a  bear.  In  Wyoming  it  is  called  the  Skunk-Bear,  and  in 
Washington  the  Indians  call  it  the  Mountain  Devil.  It  in- 
habits the  northern  Cascades  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
of  the  United  States  as  far  south  as  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  the 
whole  of  arctic  and  subarctic  America  to  the  northern  limit 
of  trees.  It  is  especially  abundant  on  the  Kuskokwim  River, 
Alaska.  Its  length  is  32  +  10  inches.  It  is  so  very  rare  that 
only  about  three  thousand  are  caught  annually  in  all  North 
America. 

THE  SKUNKS  form  a  large  group,  widely  distributed,  but 
all  the  species,  however  much  they  differ  in  size  or  color,  are 
arranged  in  three  genera. 

THE  COMMON  SKUNK,*  to  which  eight  other  species  are  re- 
lated, is  very  well  known,  chiefly  because  of  its  powerful  odor, 
its  wide  distribution,  and  its  very  conspicuous  jet-black  color, 
divided  on  the  back  by  one  or  two  broad  bands  of  white. 

The  type  of  this  group  is  practically  confined  to  the  United 
States  and  Mexico,  and  is  most  abundant  in  the  North.  The 
very  offensive  fluid  which  constitutes  its  defence  against  all 
enemies  is  contained  in  two  glands  situated  near  the  base  of 

1  Meph'i-tis  meph-it' i-ca. 


78  FLESH-EATERS 

the  tail,  and  can  be  thrown  several  feet.  Its  odor  is  so  offen- 
sive and  so  stifling  that  neither  man  nor  beast  can  long  en- 
dure it. 

The  Skunk  is  a  bold  marauder,  and  destructive  to  poultry, 
but  nevertheless  of  value  as  a  destroyer  of  white  grubs  and 
other  noxious  insects.  Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  the 
otter,  beaver,  mink,  and  marten,  tlie  fur  of  the  Skunk  has 
become  valuable,  and  is  now  very  extensively  used,  the  white 
portions  being  first  dyed  black.  Its  durability  is  70  per  cent. 
The  best  skins  are  worth  $6.00  each. 

THE  LITTLE  SPOTTED  SKUNKS1  are  found  chiefly  in  our 
southern  states,  and  can  immediately  be  recognized  by  the 
alternating  bands  of  black  and  white  which  extend  length- 
wise along  the  body.  Of  these  there  are  about  a  dozen 
species,  but  some  of  them  are  very  much  alike.  They  range 
from  the  Gulf  coast  north  to  West  Virginia  and  Kansas,  but 
on  the  Pacific  slope  they  are  found  in  Washington,  Oregon, 
California,  and  Utah. 

SKUNK  FARMING. — Skunks  can  be  bred  and  reared  in  cap- 
tivity; and  possibly  skunk  farming  may  some  day  become  a 
paying  industry,  but  it  remains  to  be  proven.  The  present 
low  value  of  skunk  fur  is  against  it.  The  annual  catch  of 
wild  skunks  for  North  America  is  figured  at  the  enormous 
number  of  1,500,000;  which  cannot  long  endure!  When 
skins  double  in  value,  skunk  farming  may  prove  profitable; 
but,  like  all  other  fur  farming,  save  in  foxes,  it  is  still  in  its 
experimental  stage.  In  the  largest  attempt  yet  made,  a  well- 
organized  company  lost  $25,000  in  three  years  because  skunks 

1  Spi'lo-gale. 


THE   BADGER  SKUNK 


81 


bred  in  close  confinement  persisted  in  devouring  their  young, 
and  no  way  was  found  to  prevent  it.  Other  skunk-farms 
have  achieved  reasonable  success. 

THE  BADGER  SKUNKS1  resemble  the  common  skunks  in 
size,  but  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  broad  white 


THE  BADGER. 

stripe  on  the  back  and  the  powerful  claws  on  the  fore  feet. 
As  indicated  by  their  name,  they  are  more  badger-like  than 
the  other  skunks,  and  are  expert  diggers.  They  are  the 
only  skunks  which  occur  in  South  America,  and  their  range 
extends  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  northward  along  the 
west  coast,  through  Central  America  and  Mexico  into  south- 
ern Texas  and  Arizona. 

1  Co-ne-pa'tus. 


82  FLESH-EATERS 

THE  BADGER  is  an  animal  of  strange  form,  its  body  being 
very  broad  and  flat  and  its  legs  very  short.  In  size  it  stands 
midway  between  the  common  skunk  and  the  wolverine.  It 
has  a  savage  and  sullen  disposition,  and  as  a  pet  is  one  of 
the  worst  imaginable.  It  lives  in  burrows,  and  feeds  on 
ground-squirrels,  prairie-"  dogs,"  and  ground  game  of  every 
description.  Often  Badgers  will  be*found  living  in  deserts 
where  it  would  seem  an  impossibility  for  any  carnivorous 
animal  to  find  a  supply  of  food.  Its  home  is  the  Great 
Plains,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  westward  thereof  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  from  Mexico  to  Manitoba  and  Alaska. 

THE  BEAR  FAMILY 

Ursidae 

That  nearly  all  young  people,  the  whole  world  over,  are 
greatly  interested  in  bears,  is  no  cause  for  wonder.  Under 
proper  conditions,  young  bears  are  the  most  merry-hearted 
wild  animals  that  come  into  captivity,  not  even  excepting 
monkeys,  and  in  some  respects  the  most  interesting.  Of  all 
wild  animals  kept  in  zoological  parks,  there  are  none  that 
more  fully  repay  the  care  bestowed  upon  them  and,  except- 
ing apes  and  monkeys,  none  that  furnish  more  amusement. 
With  plenty  of  sun-lit  space  in  which  to  romp  and  play,  good 
bathing  pools,  and  no  stone  walls  to  depress  their  spirits, 
bears,  if  not  fed  by  visitors,  are  more  playful  and  mirth- 
provoking  than  most  monkeys.  If  immured  in  gloomy  "bear- 
pits,"  or  confined  in  small  cages,  their  spirits  are  corre- 
spondingly depressed.  They  are  then  like  unhappy  prisoners, 
rather  than  care-free  wild  creatures.  If  tantalized  with  bits 


BEARS  IN  CAPTIVITY  83 

of  food,  they  quarrel  and  fight,  and  their  tempers  become 
savage  and  dangerous. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  a  bear  is  naturally  cheerful 
and  good-tempered.  Elk,  deer,  buffalo,  elephants,  and  large 
cats  often  attack  their  keepers,  but  bears  that  have  been 
properly  reared  in  captivity  seldom  do  so.  A  keeper  should 
have  no  bear  "pets,"  and  every  bear  over  one  year  old  should 
always  be  made  to  keep  away  from  his  attendants.  With 
bears,  familiarity  is  dangerous. 

The  bear  dens  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  contained 
(in  1914)  thirty-nine  bears,  of  eighteen  different  species,  liv- 
ing in  peace  and  harmony,  in  eleven  paved  yards.  Fully 
one-half  of  their  waking  hours  are  spent  in  romping,  wres- 
tling, boxing,  and  swimming,  and  ill  temper  is  rarely  shown. 
The  keepers  go  among  these  bears  with  pick  handles  for  de- 
fence, and  the  great  brutes  are  hustled  about  and  driven  to 
and  fro  as  if  they  were  so  many  sheep.  At  the  same  time, 
any  visitor  who  is  so  unwise  as  to  thrust  a  hand  between 
the  bars  within  reach  of  the  jaws  of  any  of  the  inmates  is 
certain  to  be  very  severely  bitten, — in  playfulness  rather  than 
rage!  In  their  rough  play  these  bears  continually  bite  each 
other,  without  inflicting  injury;  and  they  do  not  appreciate 
the  difference  between  a  tender  human  hand  and  a  tough, 
hairy  paw. 

Never  offer  a  finger  to  a  carnivorous  animal  unless  you 
really  wish  to  have  it  bitten  off.  And  do  not  feed  peanuts, 
candy,  peaches,  or  tobacco  to  animals  in  captivity.  If  you 
wish  to  kill  any  of  them,  a  gun  is  far  more  respectable,  and 
also  more  merciful. 


84  FLESH-EATERS 

STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS  OF  BEARS.— Bears  are  planti- 
grade, or  flat-footed,  animals,  with  long  claws  that  are  not 
retractile.  They  live  on  the  ground,  and  eat  all  kinds  of 
food,  from  green  grass  to  elk  steaks.  A  few  species  only 
are  able  to  climb  trees.  In  their  food  habits  they  are  om- 
nivorous, and  devour  almost  everything  they  can  chew, 
except  wood  and  foliage.  The  bears  of  the  Alaskan  coast 
eat  great  quantities  of  marsh  grass  and  berries,  but  salmon 
is  their  regular  food.  All  bears  eat  succulent  roots,  insect 
larvae,  honey,  frogs,  and  also  reptiles,  fish,  and  every  other 
kind  of  flesh  they  can  obtain.  In  captivity  they  thrive  best 
on  a  variety  of  food  consisting  of  stale  bread,  raw  meat, 
cooked  meat,  rice,  raw  fish,  boiled  potatoes,  raw  carrots, 
and  fruit. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  where  the  snow  falls  to  a  depth 
of  a  foot  or  more,  bears  are  unable  to  procure  food  in  winter, 
and  pass  that  season  in  a  sort  of  sleep,  or  hibernation.  With 
its  stomach  and  intestines  empty,  or  nearly  so,  a  bear  enters 
its  den  in  December,  curls  up,  and  with  some  of  the  func- 
tions of  Nature  entirely  suspended,  sleeps  until  spring!  In 
reality,  the  creature  lives  upon  the  fat  that  has  been  secreted 
under  its  skin  and  elsewhere  during  the  summer  days  of  good 
living.  Ordinarily,  bears  in  captivity  that  are  supplied  with 
daily  food  do  not  hibernate  in  winter,  but  one  cinnamon 
bear  which  I  knew  personally,  at  Mandan,  North  Dakota, 
dug  a  hole  in  the  prairie,  entered  it  on  December  17,  and  did 
not  reappear  until  March  14,  of  the  following  year.  In  the 
tropics,  bears  never  hibernate. 

Naturally,  the  dens  of  hibernating  bears  are  of  several 


HABITS  OF  BEARS  85 

kinds,  according  to  conditions.  In  the  Adirondacks  of  New 
York,  the  black  bear  often  chooses  the  base  of  a  hollow  tree, 
or  digs  a  cavity  under  the  roots  of  a  tree.  In  the  "bad 
lands"  of  the  West,  bears  easily  find  warm  and  comfortable 
dens  in  the  washout  holes  of  rugged  ravines.  In  the  moun- 
tains, amongst  rocks,  small  caves  are  easily  found.  In  Wash- 
ington, "Grizzly"  Adams  caught  "Lady  Washington"  and 
"Ben  Franklin"  in  a  deep  den  that  had  been  dug  by  their 
mother  in  a  steep  hillside. 

All  the  world  over,  two  bear  cubs  usually  constitute  a 
litter.  In  America,  they  are  usually  born  in  January,  and 
at  birth  are  ridiculously  small,  almost  hairless,  and  as  help- 
less as  newly  born  mice.  Although  they  grow  rapidly  during 
the  first  year,  they  are  seven  years  in  reaching  full  maturity. 
In  captivity  bears  seldom  breed  and  rear  their  young,  chiefly 
because  of  the  lack  of  satisfactory  seclusion  for  the  female. 
Mr.  Arthur  B.  Baker,  who  has  recently  inquired  into  the  hab- 
its of  the  American  black  bear  in  captivity,  states  that  "at 
Cuyahoga  Falls,  Ohio,  are  two  specimens  which  regularly 
hibernate,  and  also  a  pair,  born  in  1888,  which,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  three  years,  have  had  cubs  each  January  (21st 
to  27th)  up  to  1903,  all  of  which  were  raised,  excepting  a  few 
which  met  death  by  accident." 

Bears  have  bred  in  captivity  in  the  zoological  gardens 
and  parks  of  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  Washington,  and  New 
York,  but  few  of  the  cubs  have  been  reared. 

The  dimensions  of  a  Russian  brown  bear  cub — a  species 
that  is  an  excellent  understudy  of  our  silver-tip  grizzly,  and 
but  slightly  inferior  in  size — when  two  days  old  were  as  follows: 


86  FLESH-EATERS 

Length,  head  and  body,  9%  inches;  tail,  %  inch;  height,  5 
inches;  circumference  of  chest,  6%  inches;  hind  foot  iy& 
inches  by  ^  inch;  weight,  15  ounces.  This  cub  was  born 
on  January  17. 

All  American  bears,  except  the  polar,  show  great  changes 
in  the  color  of  their  pelage  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 
In  the  late  summer  the  new  pelage  is  darkest,  but  by  the 
following  spring,  the  old  coat  has  grown  so  much  lighter  in 
color  that  the  wearer  seems  like  a  different  individual.  The 
shedding  period  is  from  May  1  to  August  1. 

NORTH  AMERICAN  BEARS. — Leaving  out  of  count  the  sub- 
species, and  the  species  of  which  we  know  little  or  nothing, 
the  world  contains  fourteen  well-marked  types  of  bears. 
Of  these,  eight  inhabit  Asia  and  Europe,  four  are  found 
in  North  America,  one  is  found  all  around  the  north  pole, 
and  one  in  South  America.  From  both  the  Old  World 
and  North  America,  quite  a  number  of  additional  species 
and  subspecies  have  been  described;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  at  present  we  are  dealing  only  with  conspicuous 
types. 

Owing  to  puzzling  variations  in  color,  claws,  and  skulls, 
and  the  great  difficulty  of  bringing  together  several  hundred 
adult  skins  with  skulls,  it  is  at  present  impossible  to  state 
precisely  how  many  different  kinds  of  bears  inhabit  this  con- 
tinent, or  how  they  are  related.  In  the  near  future,  how- 
ever, many  existing  questions  will  be  settled;  and  until  then 
the  wisest  course  for  the  student  and  the  general  reader  is 
to  accept  only  well-known  facts  and  to  wait  with  patience  for 
more. 


IMPORTANT  BEARS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA  87 


LIST  OF  THE  IMPORTANT  BEARS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

f  Thalarctos      maritimus  }    , 
POLAR  BEAR (      (Phipps)  J  Arctlc  re£lons  generally. 

THE    BIG    BROWN    BEARS 

T^  f  Ursus  middendorffi  (Mer-  1  T 

KADIAK  BEAR ,  Kadiak  Island,  Alaska. 

I  LldlllJ I 

YAKUTAT  BEAR Ursus  dalli  (Merriam) Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska. 

f  Ursus    dalli    ay  as    (Mer-  ]  T 
PENINSULA  BEAR.  ...  Pavlof  Bay,  Alaska. 


MERRIAM'S  BEAR Ursus  merriami  (Allen) .  .  .Portage  Bay,  Alaska. 

ADMIRALTY     ISLAND!  TT  1     ,      ,,.,      .      N  {Admiralty     Island, 

^  BEAR )  Ursuseulophus  (Mernam)  (      ^^ 

SITKA  BEAR Ursus  sitkensis  (Merriam) .  Alaska  coast,  near  Sitka. 


THE    GRIZZLY   BEARS 

SILVER-TIP  GRIZZLY  . . .  Ursus  horribilis  (Ord) Wyoming  to  Alaska. 

c  ^  \  Ursus  horribilis  horriaeus  \  c    ,„   XT       ,T     . 

SONORA  GRIZZLY  . .  .  j       (j5a}rcn  f  S.  W.  New  Mexico. 

(  Ursus  horribilis  alascensis  }  XT 

ALASKAN  GRIZZLY  .  .  <       ,,  T      .      N  >  Norton  Sound,  Alaska. 

\      (Merriam) J 

BARREN-GROUND         f  Ursus  richardsoni  (Swain-  {  Great  Slave  Lake  and 
GRIZZLY 1      son) /      Barren  Grounds. 


THE    BLACK    BEARS 

BLACK  BEAR  .........  Ursus  americanus  (Pallas)  .  North  America. 

i  Ursus    americanus    sorn-  1  T    ,       , 
LABRADOR  BEAR.  .  .  .  (Bangs)  .......     Labrador. 


LOUISIANA  BEAR  .....  Ursus  luteolus  (Griffith)  .  .  .  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

^  f  Ursus   floridanus    (Mer-  \  ,-,,     .  , 

EVERGLADE  BEAR.  .  <        .      /  }  Honda. 

[      nam)  ...............  J 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE    \  TT  -.         fr.        A^    \  Queen  Charlotte  Islands, 

>  Ursus  carlotlae  (Osgood)  .  <      ^  .  .  ,    ^  , 
BEAR  ...........  J  \      British  Columbia. 

GLACIER  BEAR  .......  Ursus  emmonsi  (Dall)  .....  Yakutat  Bay,  Alaska. 

[  Ursus   kermodei  (Horna-  1  XT   -„  ...  ,    ^  ,       t  . 
INLAND  WHITE  BEAR  {       ,     v  >  N.  British  Columbia. 


88  FLESH-EATERS 

The  bears  of  North  America  constitute  four  distinct 
groups,  as  follows: 

POLAR  BEAR,  of  the  far  North.     White.     Very  large. 

BIG  BROWN  BEARS,  of  Alaska.    Light  brown.    Very  large. 

GRIZZLY  BEARS,  Mexico  to  Alaska.  Gray  or  brown.  Me- 
dium to  very  large. 

BLACK  BEARS,  North  America  generally,  from  Mexico  to 
Alaska.  Black  or  brown.  Medium  size,  and  large. 

To  most  persons,  the  second  group  of  this  series  is  quite 
new,  and  for  several  reasons  its  members  are  of  unusual 
interest. 

i 
The   Polar   Bear 

THE  POLAR  BEAR  stands  alone  in  its  genus.  It  is  the 
king  of  the  frozen  North,  and  its  robe  is  pure  white  all  the 
year  round.  It  inhabits  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  all 
around  the  pole,  and  wanders  over  the  arctic  islands  and  the 
great  ice-fields  almost  as  far  north  as  man  has  ever  gone. 
Nansen  saw  its  tracks  at  Latitude  84°, — its  farthest  north. 

As  a  rule,  the  Polar  Bear  follows  the  edge  of  the  great 
ice-pack,  for  the  sake  of  the  seals  and  walruses  which  move 
with  it,  north  in  summer,  and  south  in  winter.  He  seldom 
travels  more  than  a  day's  journey  inland  on  any  shore.  His 
food  consists  chiefly  of  seals,  walruses,  fish,  and  dead  whales; 
at  times  of  vegetable  matter. 

In  1874,  when  Mr.  Henry  W.  Elliott  and  Lieutenant 
Maynard  visited  St.  Matthew  Island,  a  lonely  bit  of  treeless 


THE   POLAR  BEAR 


89 


land  in  the  northern  portion  of  Bering  Sea,  they  found  upon 
it  between  250  and  300  Polar  Bears!  The  animals  were 
basking  in  the  warm  sunshine,  shedding  their  winter  coats, 
and  growing  fat  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  mosses  that 


K.  K.  Sanborn.,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 


POLAR   BEAR. 

grew  there.  On  one  occasion  twenty  bears  were  in  sight 
simultaneously.  The  bears  literally  overran  the  island,  graz- 
ing and  rooting  about  like  hogs  on  a  common.  They  showed 
no  disposition  to  fight,  but  always  ran  when  approached. 

The  Polar  Bear  is  a  tall  animal,  with  long  legs,  flat  sides, 
and  paws  that  are  very  wide  and  flat.  The  largest  specimen 
in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  is  50J/£  inches  in  height, 
7  feet  2  inches  in  length,  and  weighs  about  800  pounds.  When 
standing  erect  on  his  hind  legs,  the  end  of  his  nose  is  8  feet 


90  FLESH-EATERS 

8  inches  from  the  ground.  If  properly  and  comfortably 
caged,  and  provided  with  a  swimming  pool  five  feet  deep, 
Polar  Bears  in  the  temperate  zone  do  not  suffer  from  the 
heat  of  summer,  and  can  endure  hot  weather  fully  as  well 
as  our  black  bears.  Of  course  they  require  shade  in  summer; 

but  it  is  not  necessary  to  put  ice  in  their  pool  to  cool  the 

• 
water. 

The  power  of  this  active,  warm-blooded  animal  to  resist 
cold  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  Nature.  With  the  temperature 
many  degrees  below  zero,  the  Polar  Bear  cheerfully  leaps 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  amid  the  broken  ice,  and  swims  for 
hours.  Of  all  bears,  it  is  the  best  swimmer,  and  it  dives 
with  great  ease. 

Ten  years  ago  we  believed  that  the  Polar  Bear  was  in 
no  danger  of  being  exterminated  by  man.  That  view  was 
entirely  too  optimistic.  Carl  Hagenbeck's  sons  inform  me 
that  they  are  greatly  alarmed  over  the  impending  fate  of 
that  species,  and  fear  that  it  is  doomed  to  disappear  before 
the  constant  and  persistent  attacks  of  commercial  hunters, 
connected  with  the  whaling  industry,  who  kill  these  bears  for 
their  skins. 

Until  very  recently  the  annual  catch  of  live  Polar  Bear 
cubs  was  abundant,  and  indicated  a  well-maintained  source 
of  supply.  Now,  however,  the  annual  catch  has  fallen  to 
about  one-fifth  the  normal  number  of  past  years,  and  it  is 
feared  that  the  destruction  of  the  adult  animals  soon  will 
cause  the  practical  disappearance  of  the  species. 


THE  KADIAK  BEAR  91 

The  Big  Brown  Bears 

In  1896  the  specimens  collected  by  the  United  States 
Biological  Survey,  at  Washington,  revealed  to  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam  the  presence  in  Alaska  of  two  or  three  species  and 
subspecies  of  huge  brown  bears,  totally  different  in  character 

from  all  the  American  bears  previously  known.     These  bears 

• 

range  from  Sitka  around  to  the  extremity  of  the  Alaskan 
Peninsula,  Kadiak  Island,  and  on  northward  to  the  Kobuk 
River,  only  300  miles  from  Point  Barrow.  They  are  marked 
by  their  light-brown  color,  high  shoulders,  massive  heads  of 
great  breadth,  short,  thick  claws,  and  shaggy  pelage.  In  their 
high  shoulders,  they  resemble  grizzly  bears,  but  otherwise 
differ  from  them  in  many  ways.  Of  these  bears,  Dr.  Merriam 
has  published  preliminary  descriptions  of  four  new  species 
and  one  subspecies,  but  additional  collections  and  informa- 
tion may  possibly  result  in  the  consolidation  of  some  of  these. 

It  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  set  forth  only  the  species 
which  seems  most  sharply  defined,  and  which  may  be  con- 
sidered representative  of  the  whole  group. 

THE  KADIAK  BEAR/  of  Kadiak  Island,  and  probably  also 
of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  and  the  mainland  for  some  distance 
eastward,  is  not  only  the  largest  of  all  living  bears,  but  also 
the  largest  carnivorous  animal  in  the  world.  Several  skins 
of  immense  size,  and  skulls  21  inches  in  length,  have  been 
collected.  The  largest  specimen  ever  killed  and  measured 
by  a  naturalist  was  a  female  killed  at  Chinitna  Bay,  by  Mr. 
James  H.  Kidder,  which  had  a  shoulder  height  of  51  inches. 

1  Ur'sus  mid'den-dorf-fi,. 


92  FLESH-EATERS 

A  very  large  flat  skin  measured  at  Kadiak  by  Mr.  J.  A. 
Loring  was  9J^  feet  long  by  10J^  feet  wide  across  the  fore 
legs. 

Immediately  after  shedding,  the  new  coat  of  the  Kadiak 
Bear  is  dark  brown,  like  that  of  a  grizzly,  but  it  soon  changes 
to  a  beautiful  golden-brown  tint.  In  March  and  April,  the 
old  coat  is  of  a  golden-yellow  color,  and  really  very  beautiful. 
The  full  coat  is  long,  thick,  and  shaggy,  and  except  when 
shedding  is  in  progress,  the  animal  makes  a  very  impos- 
ing appearance.  This  species  is  recognized  by  its  uniform 
brown  or  golden  color,  its  high  shoulders,  broad  and  massive 
head,  flat  forehead,  short,  square  nose,  and  a  drop  in  the 
upper  line  of  the  head  in  front  of  the  eyes.  Mr.  Kidder 
states  that  the  bears  on  Kadiak  Island  are  uniformly  colored 
over  the  body  and  legs,  but  those  on  the  mainland  are  darker 
on  the  legs  than  on  the  body. 

The  Kadiak  Bear  catches  and  devours  great  numbers  of 
salmon,  which  are  so  abundant  in  many  Alaskan  streams 
that  it  can  throw  them  out  with  its  paws.  It  also  eats  quan- 
tities of  the  rank  marsh  grass  which  grows  along  many  salm- 
on streams  where  they  flow  through  alluvial  plains  before 
discharging  into  the  sea.  It  inhabits  the  most  rugged  moun- 
tains, and  is  seldom  killed  save  when  it  leaves  the  shelter 
of  the  timber  and  comes  into  the  open  river  valleys  and  bay- 
heads  to  feast  on  freshly  caught  salmon,  with  tender  grass 
for  dessert. 

Just  how  far  eastward  this  bear  ranges  on  the  mainland 
remains  to  be  determined,  but  I  believe  it  will  be  found  as 
far  as  the  Copper  River.  The  big  animal  found  in  the  Yukon 


THE   GRIZZLY  BEARS  93 

Valley,  and  commonly  called  the  "Red  Bear,"  undoubtedly 
belongs  to  the  group  of  big  brown  bears,  and  in  all  proba- 
bility is  the  same  as  the  Kadiak  Bear.  The  illustration  shown 
opposite  page  92  is  a  portrait  of  a  fine  Alaskan  brown  bear 
(Ursus  dalli),  living  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  which 
came  from  the  country  between  Cook  Inlet  and  the  Copper 
River.  Inasmuch  as  all  the  descriptions  of  the  species  com- 
posing the  brown-bear  group  have  been  based  chiefly  upon 
skulls,  the  exact  identity  of  some  of  our  specimens  cannot  be 
determined  while  they  are  alive.  In  the  month  of  September 
its  entire  pelage  is  of  the  uniform  dark-brown  color  charac- 
teristic of  the  bears  of  Kadiak  Island  at  the  season  when 
the  majority  of  them  are  killed,  but  later  on  the  pelage  of 
the  body  becomes  lighter  than  that  on  the  legs. 

From  a  fine  male  specimen,  of  a  species  as  yet  undeter- 
mined, that  came  to  us  from  the  Kobuk  River,  Alaska,  we 
know  that  the  group  of  Alaskan  brown  bears  is  represented 
at  a  point  only  300  miles  southwest  of  Point  Barrow,  and 
well  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 


The  Grizzly  Bears 

THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR.J — Of  all  the  bears  of  the  world,  this 
species  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  celebrated.  During  the 
days  of  muzzle-loading  rifles,  its  name  and  fame  inspired 
terror  throughout  the  mountains  and  foot-hills  of  the  wild 
western  domain  which  constituted  its  home.  For  many  years 
it  held  the  old-fashioned  Kentucky  rifle  of  the  pioneer  in 

1  Ur'sus  hor-ri'bi-lis. 


94  FLESH-EATERS 

profound  contempt,  and  frequently  when  it  was  used  to 
annoy  him,  the  user  met  a  tragic  fate.  I  believe  that  Griz- 
zlies have  killed  and  maimed  a  larger  number  of  hunters  than 
all  other  bears  of  the  world  combined. 

Down  to  the  advent  of  the  breech-loader,  the  Grizzly 
was  a  bold,  aggressive,  and  highly  dangerous  animal.  When 
attacked,  he  would  charge  his  enemies  with  great  ferocity, 
striking  terrible  blows  with  paws  that  were  like  sledge-ham- 
mers armed  with  huge  hooks  of  steel.  The  combined  swift- 
ness and  strength  with  which  any  large  bear  can  strike  must 
be  seen  or  felt  to  be  fully  appreciated. 

I  have  made  many  observations  on  the  temper  of  the 
Grizzly  Bear,  and  am  convinced  that  naturally  the  disposi- 
tion of  this  reputedly  savage  creature  is  rather  peaceful  and 
good-natured.  At  the  same  time,  however,  no  animal  is 
more  prompt  to  resent  an  affront  or  injury,  or  punish  an 
offender.  The  Grizzly  temper  is  defensive,  not  aggressive; 
and  unless  the  animal  is  cornered,  or  thinks  he  is  cornered, 
he  always  flees  from  man. 

Either  in  captivity  or  freedom,  the  Grizzly  responds  to 
fair  treatment  as  well  as  any  well-armed  wild  animal  ever 
does,  and  far  better  than  any  other  species  with  which  I  am 
personally  acquainted.  In  the  Yellowstone  Park,  where  for 
several  years  past  all  bears  have  been  fully  protected,  both 
the  Grizzly  and  black  bears  now  live  in  close  touch  with 
man,  rarely  breaking  faith  with  him.  Although  they  fre- 
quently visit  the  hotels,  and  steal  food  from  the  wagons  and 
camps  of  tourists,  I  believe  no  bear  has  yet  broken  faith  with 
the  Government  by  molesting  either  his  human  neighbors  or 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE   GRIZZLY   BEAR  97 

domestic  animals!  This  fact  speaks  volumes  for  the  moral 
character  of  our  bears.1 

The  Grizzly  is  an  animal  of  commanding  appearance,  and 
amongst  other  wild  beasts  it  acknowledges  no  superior.  A 
small  Grizzly  cub  which  we  once  set  free  in  a  mixed  com- 
pany of  five  or  six  bears  of  other  species,  all  of  which  were 
larger  than  he,  boldly  stalked  into  the  centre  of  the  group, 
with  an  air  of  conscious  superiority  and  courage  that  was 
both  characteristic  and  amusing.  It  was  the  other  bears 
which  were  frightened,  not  he! 

Specimens  of  this  species  are  readily  recognized  by  their 
high  shoulders,  powerful  proportions,  grizzly-gray  hair,  and 
long,  curved  claws.  The  standard  color  (in  winter)  is  brown 
next  to  the  skin,  the  extremities  of  the  hair  being  tipped 
with  silvery  gray,  from  which  has  come  the  common  name 
of  "Silver-Tip." 

From  Mexico  and  southern  California  to  the  Yukon  Val- 
ley, especially  along  the  main  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, the  Grizzly  shows  about  six  different  shades  of  color, 
from  brown  to  silvery  gray.  The  huge  brown  Grizzly  of 
southern  California,  now  very  rare,  has  been  described  as  a 
species  distinct  from  the  Rocky  Mountain  Silver-Tip.  I 
once  measured  the  dry  skin  of  one  of  these  animals,  which 
was  9  feet  4  inches  in  length,  and  10  feet  3  inches  wide  across 
the  shoulders,  between  the  ends  of  the  front  claws. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  largest  Grizzly  Bear  ever  actu- 

1  Since  the  above  was  written,  the  truce  of  the  Yellowstone  Park  has  been  broken. 
Two  horses  belonging  to  a  party  of  tourists  have  been  killed  by  bears,  and  the 
aggressiveness  of  the  animals  has  become  so  serious  that  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  Government  to  take  measures  which  will  teach  them  to  keep  their  place. 


98  FLESH-EATERS 

ally  weighed  was  one  that  lived  and  died  in  the  Lincoln  Park 
menagerie,  Chicago,  and  was  weighed  by  Mr.  G.  O.  Shields. 
Its  weight  was  1,153  pounds;  yet  when  alive,  western  hunters 
who  saw  it  frankly  admitted  that  it  was  larger  than  bears 
killed  by  them  which  they  "estimated"  at  1,800  pounds! 
Thus  far  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  not  produced  a  wild 
Grizzly  actually  weighing  over  800  pounds,  and  the  average 
weight  of  the  adult  Grizzlies  killed  in  the  United  States 
during  the  last  fifteen  years  has  been  between  500  and  600 
pounds. 

In  all  parts  of  the  United  States  save  the  Yellowstone 
Park  and  the  Clearwater  Mountains  of  Idaho,  the  Grizzly  is 
now  a  rare  animal,  and  so  difficult  to  find  that  it  is  almost 
useless  to  seek  it  this  side  of  British  Columbia.  The  long- 
range,  high-power  rifles  leave  them,  like  other  large  mammals 
of  this  continent,  absolutely  no  chance  for  their  lives,  and  in 
a  short  time  none  will  exist  in  the  United  States  outside  of 
the  Yellowstone  Park  and  the  zoological  gardens.  In  the 
wilds  of  Alaska,  they  may  survive  for  perhaps  a  quarter  of 
a  century  longer.  Unfortunately,  the  Grizzly  loves  to  roam 
over  treeless  mountains,  on  which  his  huge  bulk  makes  him 
conspicuous  for  miles,  and  invites  the  attacks  of  his  enemies. 
He  loves  water,  swims  well,  and  is  a  great  traveller,  but  is 
quite  unable  to  climb  trees.  Like  all  other  bears,  he  eats 
nearly  everything  he  can  chew,  and  is  very  partial  to  berries 
and  fruit  of  all  kinds. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  BLACK:  BEAK  10 1 

The  Black  Bears 

THE  BLACK  BEAR1  is  the  best-known  bear  in  North 
America.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  mountains  and  great 
tracts  of  forest  between  Florida  and  Alaska,  and  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  the  Pacific  coast.  During  the  past  twenty  years 
it  has  been  seen  or  killed  in  forty  states  of  the  United  States, 
in  Mexico,  Alaska,  and  in  eleven  of  the  British  provinces.  Its 
farthest  south  is  the  mountains  of  Costa  Rica. 

Its  standard  color  is  jet  black,  all  over,  except  the  nose, 
which  is  dirty  white  or  light  brown.  A  very  confusing  fact 
about  the  Black  Bear  is  the  frequency  with  which  it  runs 
into  brown  or  cinnamon  colors.  Sometimes  black  and  brown 
cubs  have  been  found  in  the  same  litter.  Very  curiously, 
however,  bears  of  this  color  are  found  only  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  farther  west.  In  its  browrn  phase,  this  animal 
is  called  the  CINNAMON  BEAR,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
regions  and  Alaska,  brown  specimens  are  almost  as  numerous 
as  black  ones.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  both 
kinds  belong  to  the  same  species,  but  this  seems  to  be  a  fact. 

Some  grizzlies  are  very  dark  brown,  but  they  are  never 
inky  black,  like  the  true  Black  Bear.  The  latter  differs  in 
form  from  the  grizzly  in  being  highest  in  the  middle  of  the 
back,  very  round  on  the  hind  quarters,  low  at  the  shoulders, 
and  also  by  the  fact  that  in  walking  it  usually  carries  its 
head  low.  It  is  a  smaller  animal,  and  its  claws  are  short 
and  well  adapted  to  tree-climbing.  It  conceals  itself  from 
its  enemies  much  more  successfully  than  the  grizzly,  and 

1  Ur'sus  a-mer-i-can'us. 


102  FLESH-EATERS 

therefore  still  survives  in  such  places  as  the  forests  of  the 
Adirondacks,  the  Catskills,  in  West  Virginia,  and  the  swamps 
of  the  southern  states. 

When  properly  treated,  small  Black  Bears  are  good- 
tempered  and  playful  in  captivity;  and  some  are  easily  tamed, 
and  taught  to  perform  tricks.  Cub^  are  very  interesting 
when  small,  but  by  the  time  they  are  a  year  old,  they  become 
so  strong  and  troublesome,  as  well  as  dangerous,  that  private 
owners  nearly  always  are  heartily  glad  to  get  rid  of  them. 
Never  buy  a  Black  Bear  cub  in  the  belief  that  it  can  be  kept 
for  amusement  and  resold  at  a  profit;  but  if  thine  enemy 
offend  thee,  present  him  with  a  Black  Bear  cub. 

The  Black  Bear  is  a  timid  animal,  and  always  runs  when 
observed  by  man.  It  is  a  good  climber,  runs  quite  swiftly 
when  pursued,  but  in  a  rough-and-tumble  fight  it  bawls,  roars, 
and  coughs. 

THE  GLACIER  BEAR,1  found  on  the  glaciers  around  Yaku- 
tat  Bay,  near  Mt.  St.  Elias,  Alaska,  is  one  of  the  recent  dis- 
coveries in  the  Northwest,  but  it  is  so  clearly  distinct  as  to 
merit  special  notice.  Thus  far  no  living  specimens  have 
found  their  way  into  zoological  parks  or  gardens,  and  the 
only  mounted  skin  on  exhibition  is  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum.  It  is  exactly  reproduced  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration. 

The  species  is  known  to-day  only  by  the  specimen  referred 
to  and  by  a  few  flat  skins.  As  mounted  it  is  only  24  inches 
in  height  at  the  shoulders,  and  is  one  of  the  smallest  species  of 
bears  in  North  America.  Its  color  is  a  peculiar  bluish  gray, 

1  Ur'sus  em'mons-i. 


THE   INLAND   WHITE   BEAR  105 

on  all  parts  save  the  muzzle  from  the  eyes  forward,  which  is 
dark  brown  or  black.  The  hair  is  long,  very  thick,  woolly  in 
texture,  and  stands  out  straight  all  over  the  body.  The  rarity 
of  this  animal  in  collections  and  the  long  delay  in  its  discovery 
are  partly  due  to  the  rough,  inhospitable,  and  dangerous  char- 
acter of  the  country  in  which  it  lives. 

THE  INLAND  WHITE  BEAR. — The  most  interesting  discov- 
ery in  bears  of  the  past  ten  years  is  the  Inland  White  Bear 
of  northern  British  Columbia,  described  by  the  author  (New 
York  Zoological  Society,  Ninth  Annual  Report,  1905)  from 
specimens  brought  to  light  through  the  enterprising  efforts 
of  Mr.  Francis  Kermode,  curator  of  the  Provincial  Museum  at 
Victoria,  British  Columbia.  The  species  was  named  Ursus 
ker  model. 

This  is  a  small  bear,  of  a  clear,  creamy-white"  color,  struc- 
turally belonging  in  the  group  of  black  bears.  The  type 
specimens  came  from  Gribble  Island.  At  first  the  type  speci- 
mens were  by  some  observers  believed  to  be  albino  black 
bears,  but  the  twTenty-five  or  more  specimens  that  have 
been  taken  since  1905  thoroughly  dispose  of  that  idea.  The 
Inland  White  Bear  has  come  to  stay.  Five  mounted  speci- 
mens are  shown  in  a  group  in  the  Victoria  Museum,  and 
another  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Carnegie  Museum  at  Pittsburgh. 
Up  to  1914  no  specimens  had  been  taken  alive. 

THE  SPECTACLED  BEAR. — The  bear  species  of  South 
America  are  very  few  in  number,  very  difficult  to  find,  and 
are  among  the  rarest  of  the  animals  to  be  seen  in  zoological 
parks  and  gardens.  So  far  as  we  know,  there  are  two  forms, 
both  of  which  are  found  only  in  the  mountains  of  the  great 


106  FLESH-EATERS 

Andean  chain,  in  the  northern  half  of  the  continent.  In  size 
the  Spectacled  Bear  of  Ecuador  and  Peru  is  like  a  small, 
lightly  built  North  American  black  bear.  Its  general  color  is 
glossy  black,  and  it  derives  its  name  from  a  large,  irregular, 


SPECTACLED  BEAR. 

and  often  broken  circle  of  white  that  surrounds  each  eye. 
Usually,  also,  there  are  irregular  white  bands  extending  down 
the  cheeks  and  throat. 

This  bear  is  of  light  build,  its  legs  are  longer  in  proportion 
than  those  of  our  common  black  bear,  its  ears  are  very  small  and 
far  apart,  and  its  feet  are  large.  Its  dentition  is  said  to  resem- 
ble somewhat  that  of  the  sloth  bear  of  India  (Ursus  labiatus). 


THE  RACCOON  FAMILY  109 

The  Spectacled  Bear  is  so  very  rare  in  captivity  that 
ten  years  of  constant  effort  were  required  before  we  finally 
secured,  in  1910,  our  first  specimen  for  the  New  York  Zoo- 
logical Park.  It  came  from  Quito,  and  but  for  the  fact  that 
it  was  procured  in  that  city  and  forwarded  to  us  by  a  life 
member  of  the  Zoological  Society,  Mr.  Edgar  Beecher  Bronson, 
it  never  would  have  reached  us.  A  portrait  of  "Frederico" 
is  shown  herewith.  This  animal  stood  28  inches  in  height, 
its  length  was  62^  +  ^A  inches,  and  it  weighed  143  pounds. 

THE  ANDEAN  BLACK  BEAR  (Ursus  ornatus  thomasi),  a  sub- 
species of  the  preceding,  is  very  much  like  the  spectacled  bear, 
but  it  lacks  the  spectacle  markings  around  the  eyes.  In  1909 
the  Zoological  Park  received  a  specimen  from  the  southern 
mountains  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 

THE  RACCOON  FAMILY 

Procyonidae 

THE  RACCOON,1  placed  next  to  the  bears,  is  also  planti- 
grade in  its  manner  of  walking.  It  is  a  cheerfully  persistent 
animal,  and  no  amount  of  hunting  discourages  it  or  drives 
it  away  from  its  favorite  haunts.  It  is  at  home  in  the  tim- 
bered regions  of  the  southern  and  eastern  United  States, 
especially  where  there  are  swamps, — for  the  Raccoon  loves  to 
play  in  water.  In  the  West  it  ranges  from  Arizona  to  British 
Columbia. 

Its  favorite  dwelling-place  is  a  hollow  tree,  and  its  yearly 
family  consists  of  five  or  six  young.  In  its  appetite  it  is  as 
omnivorous  as  any  bear,  and  eats  everything  that  it  can  chew, 

1  Pro'cy-on  lo'tor. 


110 


FLESH-EATERS 


—from  live  rabbits  down  to  green  corn, — fish,  flesh,  or  fowl. 
The  only  point  on  which  the  Raccoon  is  particular,  regarding 
its  food,  is  in  soaking  it  in  water  before  eating  it. 

A  live  "'Coon"  makes  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  car- 
nivorous pets  that  a  boy  can  keep  in  confinement. 


Photo,  and  copyright,  1902,  by  W.  L.  Underwood. 
THE   RACCOON. 


THE  CACOMISTLE,  "  CIVET  CAT,"  or  BASSARiSK1  is  a 
strange  little  creature  like  a  small  pine  marten  with  a  long, 
bushy  tail  and  many  common  names.  It  is  spread  over  so 
wide  an  area  of  our  country  that  its  personality  should  be 
better  known.  It  inhabits  Mexico  and  the  southwestern 
United  States  from  Texas  to  California  and  north  to  southern 
Oregon.  These  are  the  names  by  which  it  is  called  and  mis- 

1  Bas-sa-ris'cus  as-tu'tus. 


THE   BASSARISK  111 

called:  in  Mexico,  Cacomiz'tli,  or  in  English  Ca-co-mis'tle;  in 
Texas,  Texas  Civet  Cat  and  Cat  Squirrel;  in  California, 
Mountain  Cat  and  Ring-Tailed  Cat;  in  Arkansas,  Raccoon 
Fox;  by  various  scientific  authors  from  Audubon  to  Allen, 
Civet  Cat,  Ring-Tailed  Bassaris,  and  Northern  Civet  Cat. 

Now,  as  to  the  facts  regarding  this  pretty  little  creature,  it 
is  not  a  "cat"  of  any  kind,  and  there  is  about  it  not  a  trace  of 
"civet."  Dr.  Coues  proposed  Bassarisk  as  a  name  that  was 
appropriate  and  entitled  to  use.  Let  it  be  so  called  hence- 
forth, and  the  misnomers  relegated  to  obscurity,  where  they 
belong.  Its  original  Mexican  name  is  so  ill  adapted  to  our 
wants  it  never  will  be  generally  used. 

The  Bassarisk  is,  after  the  true  raccoon,  the  only  animal 
in  the  United  States  possessed  of  a  long,  bushy  tail  with  alter- 
nating black  and  white  rings  around  it.  It  climbs  trees,  and 
nests  in  hollow  branches  like  a  squirrel;  it  scratches  and  bites, 
and  catches  rats,  mice,  and  small  birds  like  a  cat;  and  it  has 
a  many-sided  appetite,  like  a  raccoon.  Its  length  of  head 
and  body  is  16  inches,  tail  about  the  same,  and  its  general 
color  is  a  brownish  gray.  It  is  a  night  prowler,  and  often 
makes  its  home  in  outbuildings  and  deserted  ranch-houses.. 
In  California  it  is  occasionally  kept  in  captivity  by  miners,  and 
is  said  to  make  a  very  attractive  and  interesting  pet. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ORDER  OF  SEALS  AN®   SEA-LIONS 

PINNIPEDIA 

SOME  students  may  feel  that  it  is  useless  for  land  dwellers 
to  try  to  become  acquainted,  at  long  range,  with  sea  ani- 
mals. Toward  many  sea  animals  this  feeling  is  justified;  but 
it  should  not  be  entertained  toward  the  bold  and  hardy 
fin-footed  children  of  the  surf.  The  seals  and  sea-lions  of  our 
shores  are  well  worth  knowing. 

From  the  warm  and  luxurious  shore  of  southern  California 
to  Oregon's  storm-beaten  Tillamook  Rock,  and  on  up  to  the 
inhospitable,  rock-bound  edge  of  western  Alaska,  you  will 
find  at  intervals,  where  Nature  has  done  some  of  her  grandest 
work  in  shore-building,  colonies  of  bold  and  hardy  sea-lions. 
On  the  Pribilof  Islands  lives  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  fur- 
bearing  animals  of  the  world,  the  fur-seal,  which  has  con- 
tributed millions  of  dollars  to  our  national  treasury,  more  than 
repaying  the  whole  price  of  Alaska. 

On  the  low  shores  and  adjacent  ice-floes  of  the  north 
Atlantic  live  the  seal  herds  that  annually  yield  an  immense 
store  of  valuable  oil,  and  furnish  employment  for  thousands 
of  Newfoundland  sailors  and  sealers. 

The  reader  may  rest  assured  that,  even  though  his  home 
be  in  the  centre  of  the  Great  Plains,  the  North  American  seals 

112 


THE  FIN-FOOTED  MAMMALS  113 

and  sea-lions  are  well  worth  knowing;  for,  sooner  or  later, 
travel  surely  will  bring  him  into  visual  contact  with  many  of 
them,  either  in  museums,  zoological  gardens,  or  alive  in  their 
haunts.  Let  us,  then,  lay  the  foundation  for  a  profitable 
acquaintance  with  them. 

By  some  writers,  these  animals  are  classed  with  the  Ferae, 
because  they  eat  flesh ;  but  to  associate  in  the  same  Order  such 
widely  different  creatures  as  sea-lions  and  cats  seems  incon- 
gruous, if  not  incorrect. 

The  Order  Pinnipedia1  contains  three  groups  of  seafaring 
animals,  distributed  widely  through  the  ocean  waters  of  the 
world,  and,  in  some  instances,  in  fresh  water  also.  They  are 
the  Sea-Lions,  Seals,  and  Walruses. 

A  SEA-LION  has  a  long,  supple  neck,  and  long,  triangular 
front  flippers  that  have  neither  hair  nor  claws,  but  are  sim- 
ply living  paddles.  Their  hind  limbs  are  web-toed  flippers. 
They  have  very  small,  sharp-pointed  ears,  carry  their  heads 
high,  and  all  are  lively,  active  animals,  both  in  swimming  and 
in  climbing  rocks.  The  males  of  some  species  grow  to  enor- 
mous size,  and  have  faces  so  lion-like  in  appearance  that  this 
resemblance  has  given  the  group  its  popular  name, — Sea-Lion. 

A  SEAL  is  a  short-necked,  fat-bodied,  low-lying,  clumsy 
animal,  not  nearly  so  active  on  land  or  so  intelligent  as  a 
Sea-Lion.  Its  front  flippers  are  short,  square-ended,  fully 
covered  with  hair,  and  provided  with  claws.  They  have  no  ex- 
ternal ears  of  skin  and  cartilage.  Their  hair  is  short,  close,  and 
stiff,  and  of  no  value  as  fur  save  to  the  Eskimo,  to  whom  every 
Seal  is  a  godsend,  and  is  utilized  in  a  great  variety  of  ways. 

1  Pin-ni-pe'di-a  means  "fin-footed." 


114 


SEALS  AND   SEA-LIONS 


A  WALRUS  is  a  sea  mammal  of  great  size,  formed  somewhat 
like  a  Sea-Lion,  and  it  is  the  clumsiest  living  creature  that 
ever  comes  upon  land.  It  has  two  long  ivory  tusks  that  grow 


HARBOR   SEAL. 


PACIFIC   WALRUS. 


STELLER   SEA-LION. 


On  the  same  scale. 


downward  from  the  upper  jaw,  a  very  thick  skin  which  lies  in 
deep  folds,  no  hair  worth  mentioning,  and  a  very  dull  brain. 
The  following  are  the  groups  and  species   which  every 
American  should  know: 


FAMILIES 


SEALS. 


.  Pho'ci-dae 


ORDER  PINNIPEDIA 


SEA-LIONS  . .  .  0-ta-ri'i-dae . . 


EXAMPLES    DESCRIBED 

California  Sea-Lion .  Zalophus  calif ornianus. 
Steller  Sea-Lion ....  Eumetopias  stelleri. 
Fur-Seal .  .  .  .  Callotaria  ursina. 


WALRUSES  . . .  Od-o-ben'i-dae 


Ringed  Seal 

Harbor  Seal 

Harp  Seal 

Hooded  Seal.  ..  . 

Ribbon  Seal .... 
J  Pacific  Walrus .  . 
1  Atlantic  Walrus. 


.  .  Phoca  foetida. 

.  .  Phoca  vitulina. 

.  .  Phoca  groenlandica. 

.  .  Cystophora  cristata. 

.  .  Histriophoca  fasciata. 

.  .Odobenus  obesus. 

.  .  Odobenus  rosmarus. 


THE  CALIFORNIA  SEA-LION  115 

THE   SEA-LION  FAMILY 

THE  CALIFORNIA  SEA-LION/  or  BARKING  SEA-LION,  is 
the  most  familiar  representative  of  the  first  group,  for  the 
reason  that  this  species  is  easiest  to  catch  alive  and  to  keep  in 
captivity.  In  zoological  gardens  and  travelling  shows,  this 
is  the  animal  which  cries  out  so  frequently,  and  with  ear- 
piercing  clearness  and  volume,  "How-woo!  Hook!  Hook! 
Hook  /"  It  inhabits  nearly  the  entire  coast  of  California,  the 
Farallone  Islands,  the  famous  Cliff  House  rocks,  and  the 
Lower  California  peninsula.  Full-grown  males  are  about  7 
feet  in  length,  weigh  about  450  pounds,  and  all  are  of  a  uni- 
form dark-brown  color.  An  adult  female  which  died  in  the 
Zoological  Park  weighed  112  pounds  and  measured:  length 
of  head  and  body,  56^  inches;  tail,  2%  inches;  total  length 
from  nose  to  end  of  hind  flippers,  70^  inches;  girth,  31J^  inches. 
These  creatures  are  very  active  in  the  water,  and  can  climb 
rocks,  and  even  high  cliffs,  with  surprising  agility.  When 
frightened,  Captain  Scammon  says  they  will  leap  from  a 
height  of  sixty  feet  into  the  sea. 

The  hair  of  this  animal  is  very  short,  coarse,  and  of  no 
value.  The  California  Sea-Lions  rarely  eat  fish,  but  live 
chiefly  upon  squids,  shell-fish,  and  crabs.  For  reasons  known 
only  to  themselves,  they  swallow  many  round  pebbles,  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.  We  once  took  sixteen  pounds 
(half  a  pailful)  from  the  stomach  of  a  medium-sized  specimen. 

In  captivity  all  kinds  of  seals  and  Sea-Lions  live  content- 
edly in  fresh  water.  The  value  of  a  living  California  Sea- 

1  Zal'o-phus  cal-i-for-ni-an'us. 


116  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

Lion  in  New  York  City  is  about  $100.  This  species  possesses 
great  intelligence,  and  quite  recently  several  specimens  have 
been  trained  to  go  through  a  show  performance  which  is 
really  wonderful,  including  a  most  remarkable  act  in  which 
a  Sea-Lion  successfully  balances  a  large  ball  on  the  point  of 
its  nose. 

An  important  incident  in  the  life  history  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Sea-Lion  furnishes  a  good  illustration  of  the  folly  of 
condemning  a  wild  species  to  destruction  on  insufficient 
evidence. 

For  several  years  the  fishermen  of  San  Francisco  com- 
plained that  the  Sea-Lions  of  the  California  coast  devoured 
such  enormous  quantities  of  salmon  and  other  fish  that  they 
were  seriously  affecting  the  available  supply;  besides  which 
they  caused  great  damage  to  nets  and  impounded  fish.  They 
demanded  that  the  Sea-Lions  be  destroyed,  and  finally  con- 
vinced the  state  authorities  that  their  contentions  were  well 
founded. 

It  was  decided  that  the  animals  should  be  destroyed,  by 
systematic  shooting,  down  to  a  comparatively  small  number; 
and  the  slaughter  was  duly  ordered.  Men  were  engaged  to 
do  the  work,  in  a  businesslike  way,  and  an  official  request  for 
permission  to  kill  on  the  lighthouse  reservations  of  the  Gov- 
ernment was  granted. 

But  there  were  certain  naturalists  who  doubted  the  entire 
accuracy  of  the  charges  made  against  the  Sea-Lions,  and 
asked  for  proof  in  detail.  When  no  evidence  of  a  specific  and 
convincing  nature  was  brought  forward,  they  requested  that 
the  slaughter  proposed  on  the  Farallone  Islands,  and  other 


FOOD   OF  SEA-LIONS 


117 


lighthouse  reservations,  be  deferred,  pending   a    careful   in- 
quiry; and  this  was  done. 

However,  where  the  state  authorities  had  full  power  to 
act,  the  killing  proceeded  in  a  few  localities.     It  happened 


Keller,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 


CALIFORNIA  SEA-LION. 


that  during  the  killing  of  California  Sea-Lions  on  the  shore  of 
Monterey  Bay  and  vicinity,  Professor  L.  L.  Dyche,  of  the 
University  of  Kansas,  arrived  on  the  scene  to  pursue  studies 
in  marine  life.  He  examined  the  stomachs  of  twenty  Sea- 
Lions  which  were  washed  ashore,  and  of  five  more  which  he 
killed  for  the  purpose  of  mounting  their  skins. 

Every  stomach  examined  contained  the  remains  of  squids 


118  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

and  devil-fish  (Octopus),  one  or  both;  and  both  of  which  are 
among  the  fisherman's  enemies!  Not  one  of  the  twenty -five 
stomachs  which  he  carefully  examined  and  reported  upon  con- 
tained any  portion  of  a  scaled  fish. 

In  1901,  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  conducted  a 
systematic  investigation  of  the  food  Jiabits  of  the  Sea-Lions 
of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  report  of  Messrs.  Rutter,  Snod- 
grass  and  Starks  appears  in  the  Report  of  the  Fish  Commis- 
sioner for  1902.  At  six  points  on  the  coast  of  California,  the 
investigators  killed  a  total  of  twenty -four  specimens  of  the 
California  Sea-Lion,  and  eighteen  of  the  Steller  Sea-Lion. 
The  report  says: 

"Of  thirteen  California  Sea-Lions  whose  stomachs  con- 
tained food,  five  had  eaten  fish  and  eleven  had  eaten  squid. 
The  quantity  of  fish  was  inconsiderable,  seventeen  small 
fishes  being  the  maximum,  while  the  remains  of  one  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  squid  were  found  in  each  of  five 
stomachs. 

"All  the  thirteen  Steller  Sea-Lions  whose  stomachs  con- 
tained food  had  eaten  fish,  and  five  had  eaten  squid,  or  octo- 
pus. The  number  of  squid  eaten  was  small,  six  being  the 
maximum  number  in  one  Sea-Lion,  while  the  quantity  of  fish 
was  large,  at  least  thirty-five  pounds  being  taken  from  one 
stomach." 

The  detailed  report  of  the  kinds  of  fishes  consumed  as 
food  by  these  animals  reveals  an  assortment  of  very  little 
value,  and  not  one  salmon  or  shad.  Professor  Dyche's  dis- 
covery— that  the  California  Sea-Lion  feeds  almost  exclusively 
upon  squid — was  fully  confirmed,  for  the  twenty -four  animals 


SUMMARY  OF  THE   EVIDENCE  119 

killed  contained  only  three  rockfish,  two  hake,  twenty-four 
"small  fish"  and  one  chimera, — but  over  eleven  hundred 
squid!  The  stomachs  of  the  Steller  Sea-Lions  contained 
fourteen  rockfish,  two  perch,  thirty  clupeoid  fish,  seventeen 
"large  fishes  of  12  to  18  inches,"  and  a  few  skates,  sharks, 
and  squids. 

4  The  testimony  of  the  fishermen  was  so  contradictory  it 
is  of  no  value.  .  .  .  One  man  claims  that  the  Sea-Lions  are 
becoming  more  numerous  and  destructive  every  year,  while 
another  claims  that  they  are  rapidly  becoming  exterminated." 
There  was  "practically  no  complaint"  of  fish  destruction  "at 
the  time  of  the  investigation.  Sea-Lions  were  scarcely  ever 
seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  salmon  nets  during  1901." 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  "the  fishermen  were 
unanimous  in  their  denunciation  of  the  Sea-Lions."  "The 
shallow  water  and  the  large  number  of  salmon  make  that 
point  a  favorite  feeding  ground;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Sea-Lions  are  doing  much  damage  there."  "It  appears 
that  the  Sea-Lions  are  doing  very  little  damage  anywhere 
excepting  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River."  (Report, 
page  117.) 

A  summary  of  the  results  of  the  investigation  establishes 
three  facts: 

1.  The  California  Sea-Lion  is  not  guilty  of  destroying  fish 
to  any  great  extent,  and  deserves  protection,  not  death. 

2.  The  Steller  Sea-Lion  eats  miscellaneous  fish,  but  on  the 
coast  of  California  does  nothing  to  merit  destruction.     At  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  it  is  destructive,  and  there  deserves  to 
be  kept  in  check. 


120  SEALS  AND   SEA-LIONS 

3.  Wild  animals  never  should  be  destroyed  on  the  strength 
of  general  opinions,  for  a  supposed  enemy  may,  on  careful 
investigation,  prove  to  be  a  friend. 

THE  STELLER  SEA-LiON,1  the  largest  Sea-Lion  in  the  world, 
inhabits  a  few  isolated  spots  on  the  Pacific  coast,  from  Santa 
Cruz,  California,  to  Bering  Strait.  ^  Large  male  specimens 
attain  an  average  length  of  10  to  11  feet,  stand  6  feet  high, 
and  attain  a  weight  estimated  by  competent  observers  at 
1,400  pounds.  The  full-grown  male  has  a  girth  of  8  to  9  feet, 
a  lion-like  head,  coarse  neck  hair  4  inches  long,  and  canine 
teeth,  like  those  of  a  grizzly  bear,  which  are  much  used  in 
fighting. 

The  full-grown  females  are  from  8  to  9  feet  long,  weigh 
from  400  to  500  pounds,  and  are  more  finely  formed  than  the 
males.  The  hair  is  coarse,  and  the  animal  is  now  of  practi- 
cally no  commercial  value,  save  for  its  oil.  This  species  is 
readily  distinguished  from  the  California  sea-lion  by  its  far 
greater  size,  its  hoarse  voice,  the  very  large  neck,  and  the  long, 
coarse  neck  hair  of  the  males. 

In  its  habits,  this  great  Sea-Lion  is  very  peculiar.  Amongst 
themselves  the  old  males  fight  fiercely,  and  with  their  big 
canine  teeth  inflict  upon  each  other  many  severe  skin  wounds. 
I  have  seen  specimens  whose  necks  bore  scores  of  large  scars. 
In  the  presence  of  man,  however,  they  are  timid  and  easily 
frightened. 

This  giant  among  Sea-Lions  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia, in  small  numbers  only,  at  Point  Ano  Neuvo,  near 
Santa  Cruz,  at  Purissima,  the  Farallone  Islands,  Point  Reyes, 

1  Eu-me-to1 'pi-as  stel'ler-i. 


THE  STELLER  SEA-LION  123 

and  Point  Arena.  On  the  coast  of  Oregon  it  is  found  about 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  and  near  Tillamook  Head.  The 
agents  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  reporting  ob- 
servations made  in  1901,  stated  that  "probably  half  of  the 
Sea-Lions  of  California  (of  both  species)  are  found  at  the  Fa- 
rallone  Islands,  and  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the  total  num- 
ber on  the  coast  amounts  to  five  thousand."  A  large  colony 
of  Steller  Sea-Lions  inhabits  Bogoslof  Island,  Alaska,  living 
almost  in  the  shadow  of  that  celebrated  volcano.  Twice  they 
have  been  photographed  for  moving  pictures. 

In  October,  1903,  the  New  York  Zoological  Society's 
agents  succeeded,  after  many  fruitless  efforts,  in  capturing 
six  young  specimens  in  the  sea  off  San  Miguel  Island,  Cali- 
fornia, and  safely  transporting  them  to  New  York.  The  ex- 
pectation that  these  animals  would  prove  to  be  more  hardy 
in  New  York  than  the  California  Sea-Lion  was  not  realized. 
They  all  died  within  six  months,  of  pneumonia — the  curse  of 
Sea-Lions  in  captivity  in  fresh  water. 

THE  FuR-SEAL,1  which  yields  the  beautiful  and  costly  fur 
so  highly  prized  for  ladies'  garments,  is  not  a  true  seal,  but  a 
sea-bear  or  sea-lion,  quite  similar  in  form,  size,  and  general 
habits  to  the  California  species  already  described.  It  is  found 
on  the  Pribilof  or  Seal  Islands,  in  Bering  Sea,  where  during 
the  Russian  occupation  it  was  twice  nearly  exterminated  for 
its  fur;  on  Copper  and  Robben  Islands,  off  the  coast  of 
Siberia;  and  in  the  open  sea  from  the  Pribilof  Islands  south- 
eastward to  the  thirty-fifth  parallel,  thence  northward  along 
the  coast,  back  to  the  Seal  Islands. 

1  Cal-lo-ta'ri-a  ur-si'na. 


124  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

The  size  of  the  Fur-Seal  has  been  carefully  observed  by 
Mr.  Henry  W.  Elliott,  and  recorded  as  follows: 

MALES  AND  FEMALES 

LENGTH  GIRTH  WEIGHT 

At  birth  (June  20) 12  to  14  in.  10  in.  6  to  11A  Ibs. 

At  six  months 24  25   "  39 

At  one  year 38  •  &5   k  39 

MALES  ONLY 

LENGTH  GIRTH  WEIGHT 

At  two  years 45  in.  30  in.  58  Ibs. 

At  three  years 52  "  36  "  87    " 

At  six  years 72  "  64  "  280    " 

At  8  to  20  years 75  to  80  in.         70  to  75  in.  400  to  500  Ibs. 

The  Fur-Seal  has  two  kinds  of  hair.  Its  outer  coat  is 
long,  stiff,  coarse,  and  gray  in  color.  In  preparing  skins  for 
market,  all  this  is  plucked  out  and  thrown  away,  leaving 
only  the  fine,  soft,  brown  under-fur,  which  before  manufac- 
ture is  dyed  a  rich,  blackish-brown  color.  Fur-Seal  garments 
vary  in  price  from  $200  to  $700. 

The  Fur-Seal  has  strange  and  interesting  habits.  It 
spends  about  two-thirds  of  each  year  far  at  sea,  making  a  cir- 
cuit of  6,000  miles  in  the  open  ocean  without  touching  land. 
For  some  strange  reason,  the  herd  in  American  waters  has 
chosen  the  two  Pribilof  Islands,  St.  Paul  and  St.  George,  as 
the  only  spots  in  our  waters  whereon  they  are  willing  to  land 
and  bear  their  young.  To  these  favorite  breeding  places,  on 
these  islands  known  as  "hauling-grounds,"  the  Fur-Seal  mil- 
lions were  wont  to  repair  in  the  early  summer  of  each  year,  to 
bear  their  young.  The  returning  herd  begins  to  arrive  be- 
tween May  1  and  15,  the  breeding-season  is  over  by  September 


ANNUAL  MIGRATION   OF  THE   FUR-SEAL  HERD      125 


15,  and  by  the  end  of  November  all  the  Seals  are  gone  on  their 
great  winter  cruise  southward  into  warmer  waters.  By  a 
long  series  of  inquiries  the  winter  cruise  of  the  herd  was  first 
mapped  out  by  Henry  W.  Elliott,  and  is  shown  herewith. 

On  the  breeding-grounds,  each  large  and  hard-fighting  old 
male  gathers  round  him  a  harem  of  from  six  to  ten  females, 


*tf  ^  A 


ANNUAL  WINTER  MIGRATION  OP  THE   FUR- 
SEAL  HERD. 


fights  off  all  rivals,  young  or  old,  and  elects  himself  the  head 
of  an  imposing  family.  In  the  days  of  the  Fur-Seal  millions, 
the  three-year-old  male  Seals — called  "bachelors" —were 
killed  for  their  fur,  to  the  number  of  about  100,000  each 
year.  The  females  bear  only  one  "pup"  annually,  immedi- 
ately after  landing  in  May. 

The  mother  Seals  leave  their  young,  go  to  sea  in  search  of 
food,  remain  several  days  perhaps,  or  even  a  fortnight,  then 
return  and  go  straight  to  their  own  respective  offspring.  It 
was  the  killing  of  the  mothers  at  sea  that  produced  an  enor- 


126  SEALS  AND   SEA-LIONS 

mous  falling  off  in  the  number  available  each  year.  The  per- 
sistent slaughter  of  mothers  will  exterminate  any  animal  spe- 
cies, no  matter  how  numerous. 

The  accompanying  map  graphically  illustrates  the  re- 
markable seagoing  habits  of  the  Pribilof  Fur-Seal  herd  after 
the  close  of  the  breeding-season  and  during  the  intensely  cold 
and  fearfully  windy  winters  that  annually  render  life  on  the 
Seal  Islands  a  serious  task. 

The  combined  political  and  commercial  importance  of  the 
Fur-Seal  demands  a  brief  summary  of  the  most  important 
facts  of  its  rise  to  favor,  its  decline,  its  fall,  and  now  the  be- 
ginning of  its  restoration. 

A    REVIEW   OF   FUR-SEAL   HISTORY 

For  more  than  twenty-six  years  the  Fur-Seal  was  to  the 
United  States,  England,  and  Canada  a  source  of  well-nigh 
constant  anxiety,  contention,  and  at  times  irritation.  Inas- 
much as  the  fate  of  that  animal  is  still  pending,  it  seems 
desirable  to  set  forth  the  most  important  facts  in  its  case  in 
chronological  order.  The  history  of  the  Fur-Seal  since  our 
acquisition  of  Alaska  is  divided  into  three  periods,  one  of 
revenue,  one  of  contention,  and  one  of  restoration. 

The  Period  of  Revenue 

1867. — When  Alaska  became  a  United  States  possession, 
by  purchase  from  Russia  at  a  cost  of  $7,200,000,  the  fur  of 
the  Fur-Seal  was  almost  unknown  to  fashion,  and  outside  of 
Russia  was  neither  used  nor  particularly  desired. 


REVIEW  OF  FUR-SEAL  HISTORY  127 

1870. — The  United  States  leased  to  the  Alaska  Commercial 
Company,  for  twenty  years,  the  exclusive  right  to  kill  each 
year,  on  the  Pribilof  Islands,  100,000  young  male  Fur-Seals, 
receiving  therefor,  annually,  the  sum  of  $317,500. 

1872. — The  Alaska  Commerical  Company  began  to  expend 
$100,000  in  cash,  chiefly  in  London,  in  making  the  wearing  of 
sealskin  fashionable.  This  effort  was  entirely  successful. 

1873. — After  a  careful  survey  of  the  Pribilof  Islands,  and 
an  elaborate  computation  of  the  number  of  Fur-Seals  then 
inhabiting  them,  Mr.  Henry  W.  Elliott,  a  special  agent  of 
the  Treasury  Department,  announced  the  total  number  of 
Seals  to  be  3,193,420.  He  says:  "No  language  can  express 
adequately  your  sensations  when  you  first  stroll  over  the  out- 
skirts of  any  one  of  those  great  breeding  grounds  of  the  Fur- 
Seal  on  St.  Paul's  Island.  .  .  .  Indeed,  while  I  pause  to  think 
of  this  subject,  I  am  fairly  rendered  dumb  by  the  vivid  spec- 
tacle which  rises  promptly  to  my  view.  It  is  a  vast  camp  of 
parading  squadrons  which  file  and  deploy  over  slopes  from 
the  summit  of  a  lofty  hill  a  mile  down  to  where  it  ends  on  the 
south  shore.  Upon  that  area  before  my  eyes,  this  day  and 
date  of  which  I  have  spoken,  were  the  forms  of  not  less  than 
three-fourths  of  a  million  seals,  moving  in  one  solid  mass  from 
sleep  to  frolicsome  gambols,  backward,  forward,  over,  around 
.  .  .  until  the  whole  mind  is  so  confused  and  charmed  by 
the  vastness  of  mighty  hosts  that  it  refuses  to  analyze  any 
further."  ("Our  Arctic  Province,"  p.  313.) 

Some  observers  estimated  the  number  of  Seals  at  a  figure 
higher  than  Mr.  Elliott's.  Others  have  recently  contended 
that  it  must  have  been  less. 


128  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

1880.—  " Pelagic  sealing"  means  the  killing  of  Fur-Seals, 
male  or  female,  in  the  open  sea,  by  means  of  guns  or  spears. 
It  is  an  exceedingly  wasteful  and  destructive  method,  but  it 
had  been  going  on  in  a  quiet  way  for  many  years.  On  land, 
only  male  Seals  are  killed.  In  the  sea,  about  four  females 
were  killed  to  every  male  taken,  and  the  pups  on  shore  were 
left  to  starve.  In  1880  the  total  number  of  Seals  taken  at 
sea  in  Bering  Sea  was  only  8,418;  but  from  that  time  on  the 
killing  increased  rapidly  and  became  fearfully  destructive. 

1882. — Up  to  this  time  the  great  Seal  herd  of  Bering  Sea 
was  in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  and  yielded  on  the  islands  its 
annual  quota  of  100,000  "bachelor"  Seals  without  sensible 
variation.  The  number  killed  at  sea  in  1882  was  15,551. 

The  Period  of  Contention 

1886.— The  catch  of  Seals  at  sea  rose  to  28,494.  Of  the 
large  fleet  of  vessels  then  hunting  Seals  in  Bering  Sea,  a  num- 
ber were  seized  by  the  United  States  Government  vessels 
which  were  guarding  the  islands.  These  were  chiefly  Cana- 
dian schooners,  but  some  were  American. 

1887. — The  pelagic  sealing  fleet  was  increasing  each  year. 
The  United  States  began  negotiations  with  six  foreign  govern- 
ments with  a  view  to  securing  co-operation  in  saving  the  Seals 
from  the  extermination  which  threatened  them  at  the  hands  of 
the  "poachers." 

1890. — The  lease  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company  ter- 
minated, and  the  North  American  Commercial  Company  bid 
successfully  for  the  new  lease  of  the  Seal-taking  privilege  on 
the  Pribilof  Islands.  According  to  the  calculations  of  Mr. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  FUR-SEALS  129 

Elliott,  the  Seals  on  the  islands  now  numbered  959,455. 
From  1871  to  1889,  except  for  four  years,  over  100,000  male 
Seals  had  been  taken  annually,  on  the  islands,  and  paid  for. 
The  total  revenue  derived  by  our  Government  during  that 
twenty-year  period  was  $6,350,000.  In  1890  the  Seals  killed 
and  secured  at  sea  numbered  40,814,  while  the  number  killed 
and  lost  was  unknown. 

1891. — An  agreement  called  a  modus  vivendi  (or  way  of 
living  in  peace)  was  made  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  for  three  years,  designed  to  close  Bering  Sea  to  pelagic 
sealing  pending  the  result  of  the  Paris  Tribunal.  Practically, 
it  amounted  to  nothing. 

1893. — The  case  of  the  pelagic  sealers  was  tried  before  the 
Paris  Tribunal,  and  through  the  ineffective  management  of 
our  case  we  lost  on  practically  all  our  contentions.  The 
pelagic  sealers  emerged  from  the  contest  with  full  license  to 
kill  Seals  at  sea  everywhere  outside  a  sixty-mile  radius  of  the 
Pribilof  Islands.  Because  Japan,  China,  and  Russia  were  not 
parties  to  the  tribunal,  the  people  of  those  nations  were  not 
bound  by  the  award  which  kept  American,  Canadian,  and 
English  sealing  vessels  sixty  miles  away  from  the  Seal  islands ! 

1894. — In  this  year  61,838  Seals  were  killed  at  sea  and 
secured,  while  an  unknown  number  were  killed  and  lost. 

1895. — Mr.  J.  B.  Crowley  (member  of  Congress  in  1903), 
as  a  special  agent  of  the  Treasury  Department,  assisted  in 
counting  the  dead  bodies  of  about  30,000  Fur-Seal  "pups," 
on  the  Seal  islands,  which  had  starved  that  year  by  reason  of 
the  killing  of  their  mothers  while  at  sea  in  search  of  fish. 
(Congressional  Record.)  There  were  56,291  Seals  killed  at 


130  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

sea  by  the  eighty-one  vessels  engaged  in  pelagic  sealing.  On 
land  the  number  killed  was,  by  order  of  the  Government,  re- 
duced to  14,846. 

From  1890  to  the  end  of  1895  (six  years)  the  cost  to  the 
United  States  Government  of  its  patrol  of  the  waters  of 
Bering  Sea,  with  war  vessels  and  revenue  cutters,  in  order  to 
protect — as  far  as  possible — the  Seal  herd  from  complete  an- 
nihilation, was  $1,410,721.  Besides  this,  the  Government 
expended  $227,163  on  its  Treasury  agents,  and  $473,000  was 
paid,  by  the  decision  of  the  Paris  Tribunal,  as  "damages"  to 
the  men  who  stole  our  Seals  and  were  caught  in  the  act! 

1897. — The  number  of  dead  pups  counted  on  the  breeding- 
grounds,  by  Dr.  Frederic  A.  Lucas  and  others,  was  21,750, 
and  in  October  the  number  of  seals  remaining  alive  of  our 
herd  was  estimated  at  343,746.  (D.  S.  Jordan,  "Report,  Fur- 
Seal  Investigation,"  1896-7,  p.  100.) 

1898. — By  a  law  passed  December  29,  1897,  all  citizens  of 
the  United  States  were  absolutely  prohibited  from  killing  or 
capturing  Fur-Seals  at  sea  elsewhere  in  Bering  Sea,  the  Sea 
of  Okhotsk,  or  elsewhere  north  of  the  35th  parallel  of  north 
Latitude.  The  ownership  of  any  Fur-Seal  skins  taken  in  those 
waters  was  also  prohibited,  under  severe  penalties.  All  skins 
from  female  Seals,  either  raw  or  dressed,  were  also  excluded 
from  our  markets.  From  that  date  (December  29,  1897) 
pelagic  sealing  ceased  to  be  an  American  industry. 

1903. — By  this  date  the  situation  of  the  Fur-Seal  had  grown 
desperate.  The  number  then  alive  was  about  200,000.  While 
Americans  could  not  engage  in  pelagic  sealing  under  our  flag, 
and  no  Canadians  might  inside  the  sixty -mile  limit,  dozens  of 


OBSTACLES  TO  PROTECTION          131 

well-equipped  sealing  vessels  were  sent  out  from  Yokohama 
and  other  ports  in  Japan,  under  the  Japanese  flag,  which 
hunted  seals  within  three  miles  of  the  Pribilof  Islands!  Cana- 
dian sealers  were  still  hunting  outside  the  protected  zone,  and 
killing  many  Seals  annually. 

Up  to  this  date  our  Government  had  done  everything 
in  its  power  to  prevent  the  extermination  of  the  Fur-Seal 
and  afford  it  a  just  measure  of  protection.  England  could 
go  no  farther  without  giving  grave  offence  to  Canada.  But 
in  England  about  $2,000,000  of  capital  was  invested  in  the 
business  of  dyeing  and  dressing  Fur-Seal  skins,  and  this  work 
employed  between  two  thousand  and  three  thousand  opera- 
tives. It  had  always  been  impossible  for  sealskins  to  be  satis- 
factorily dyed  and  dressed  in  America. 

Prior  to  1910  the  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Fur-Seal  was  its  fatal  habit  of  going  to  sea,  far 
from  its  hauling-grounds,  coupled  with  the  belief  of  a  large 
number  of  Canadians  and  Americans  that  a  Seal  at  sea  was 
the  lawful  prize  of  him  who  could  take  it.  Patriotism,  and 
the  desire  for  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number,  did 
not  enter  into  their  calculations.  The  American  or  Cana- 
dian pelagic  sealer  claims  that  the  open  sea  is  his,  and  he  cares 
only  for  the  $20  or  $40  that  each  raw  skin  is  worth.  En- 
gland could  not  reasonably  be  expected  to  quarrel  with  Canada 
because  of  our  desire  to  perpetuate  our  Seal  herd,  and  derive 
from  it  a  revenue  of  a  million  dollars  a  year, — which  is  the 
sum  that  the  Fur-Seals  would  yield  to-day  but  for  the  slaugh- 
ter of  1,000,000  females  at  sea  and  starvation  of  1,000,000 
pups  at  sea  and  on  shore. 


132  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

The  Period  of  Restoration 

1910. — Down  to  this  date  the  misfortunes  of  the  unhappy 
Fur-Seal  herds  had  steadily  increased.  About  thirty-five 
Japanese  sealing  vessels  annually  visited  the  Pribilof  Islands, 
and  formed  a  cordon  in  front  of  the  breeding-grounds  of  the 
herds.  Through  that  dead-line  of  boats  and  hunters,  the 
nursing  mother  Seals  had  to  pass  in  order  to  reach  their  fish- 
ing grounds,  and  to  return  from  them  to  their  young.  On 
shore  about  15,000  male  Seals  were  being  annually  slaughtered 
by  the  leasing  parties  (the  North  American  Commercial  Com- 
pany), and  at  sea  about  an  equal  number  of  Seals  were  killed 
and  secured,  of  which  from  70  to  80  per  cent  were  females! 
The  number  of  females  killed  at  sea  and  lost  never  will  be 
known. 

For  several  years  prior  to  1910  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment had  been  losing  money  on  the  Fur-Seal  industry, 
chiefly  through  costly  but  futile  efforts  to  protect  the  herds. 
By  that  time  the  total  loss  during  the  previous  twenty  years 
amounted  to  about  $6,000,000,  not  counting  the  loss  of  the 
Seals  themselves.  In  1909  the  lessees  were  unable  to  secure, 
even  by  the  closest  driving,  their  full  quota  of  15,000  Seals. 

In  the  summer  of  1910  the  Camp-Fire  Club  of  America 
decided  that  it  was  time  for  private  citizens  to  intervene  at 
Washington,  in  an  effort  to  induce  Congress  to  take  action 
of  a  nature  calculated  to  save  the  Fur-Seal  industry  from  per- 
manent ruin,  save  the  species  from  practical  extinction  on 
our  islands,  and  end  a  long-standing  international  disgrace. 
Accordingly,  in  December  of  that  year  three  specific  demands 


PROTECTION  UNDER  TREATIES  135 

were  laid  before  Cpngress  through  Senator  J.  M.  Dixon, 
and  the  Senate  Committee  on  the  Conservation  of  National 
Resources.  These  demands  were:  (1)  The  immediate  abo- 
lition of  the  leasing  system  for  the  killing  of  Fur-Seals  on  our 
islands,  (2)  the  making  of  international  treaties  (with  England, 
Russia,  Japan,  and  Mexico)  for  the  total  suppression  of  Seal 
killing  at  sea,  and  (3)  a  long  close  season  (of  five  or  ten  years) 
for  the  recuperation  of  the  shattered  herds. 

The  response  of  Congress  was  prompt  and  far-reaching. 
On  April  30,  1911,  the  leasing  system  of  killing  was  forever 
terminated,  and  the  management  of  the  Fur-Seal  industry 
was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce. In  1912  treaties  for  the  suppression  of  pelagic  seal- 
ing were  successfully  negotiated  with  England,  Russia,  and 
Japan.  The  terms  of  those  treaties  provided  that  each  of 
the  nations  named  should  restrain  its  subjects  from  pelagic 
sealing,  and  in  return  would  receive  a  share  in  the  annual 
proceeds  of  the  Fur-Seal  industry.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment was  specifically  empowered  to  suspend  killing  oper- 
ations on  land  for  such  period  or  periods  as  the  best  main- 
tenance of  the  herds  might  require.  It  was  stipulated  in  the 
treaties  that  when  killing  operations  were  conducted  on  a 
commercial  basis,  Japan  should  receive  15  per  cent,  and  En- 
gland 10  per  cent,  of  the  proceeds.  It  was  also  stipulated  that 
during  any  close  season  which  the  United  States  might  find 
it  necessary  to  enforce  for  the  recuperation  of  the  herds,  the 
United  States  should  annually  pay  to  England  and  Japan  the 
sum  of  $10,000  each.  These  treaties  were  ratified. 

In  1912,  after  prolonged  deliberation,   Congress  decided 


136  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

to  give  the  Fur-Seal  herds  a  five-year  close  season,  for  rest 
and  recuperation,  which  was  done. 

1913. — A  committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  sent 
to  the  Pribilof  Islands  two  agents,  Henry  W.  Elliott  and  A. 
F.  Gallagher,  to  count  the  living  Seals  on  the  islands  and  re- 
port upon  the  general  condition  of  thg  herd.  Their  enumer- 
ations, estimates,  and  calculations  led  them  to  submit  the 
following  report: 

Census  of  Fur-Seals  on  the  Pribilof  Islands  in  1913 

Old  bulls,  8  to  15  years  old  (breeders) 1,400 

Young  bulls,  6  to  7  years  old  (next  breeders) 150 

Cows,  2  years  of  age,  and  above 80,000 

Pups,  under  1  year 70,000 

Yearlings,  sexes  undeterminable ("a  vague  estimate  ")  30,000 

Males,  2  years  old "      "  "  6,000 

Males,  3  years  old "      "  "  3,000 

Males,  4  years  old "      "  400 

Total  Fur-Seals  of  all  ages,  in  1913 190,950 

Conclusion. — At  last  the  long-standing  disgrace  and  irri- 
tation of  the  Fur-Seal  situation  has  been  happily  terminated. 
Pelagic  sealing  has  ceased,  and  the  five-year  close  season  now 
in  force  may  possibly  rehabilitate  the  herds  so  effectually  that 
by  the  end  of  that  period  killing  operations  for  commercial 
fur  can  be  resumed  on  a  large  scale,  at  satisfactory  profits 
to  all  the  nations  concerned.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that 
there  is  an  alarming  scarcity  of  males  between  the  ages  of 
three  and  six  years,  and  that  of  the  "next  breeders"  there 
are  only  150! 


VARIETIES  OF  THE   SEAL  FAMILY  137 

THE  SEAL  FAMILY 

Phocidae 

THE  LITTLE  RINGED  SEAL1  is  the  Seal  of  the  Farthest 
North,  and  the  friend  of  the  northern  Eskimo  all  round  the 
pole.  It  is  the  smallest  North  American  species,  and  looks 
very  much  like  the  common  harbor  seal.  It  goes  as  far 
north  as  it  can  find  breathing-holes.  Nansen  found  it  on 
May  31,  at  82°  2l',  or  within  460  miles  of  the  pole,  living 
in  the  narrow  lanes  of  water  that  were  then  forming  in  the 
great  polar  ice-pack.  It  was  a  BEARDED  SEAL,2  however, 
which,  on  June  22,  afforded  the  brave  explorers  a  good  supply 
of  food  when  men  and  dogs  were  almost  starved.  And,  true 
to  its  nature,  an  old  polar  bear,  with  two  small  cubs,  was 
closely  following  up  the  seals  as  they  worked  north  through 
the  ice-pack. 

THE  COMMON  HARBOR  SEAL,S  of  both  our  ocean  coasts,  is 
a  good  representative  of  the  Seal  Family,  chiefly  because  it 
is  the  species  most  frequently  seen.  It  ascends  rivers  far 
above  tidal  influence,  and  has  been  taken  in  Lake  Champlain. 
In  the  Columbia  River  a  closely  related  species  has  been 
taken  above  The  Dalles,  200  miles  from  the  sea. 

THE  HARP  SEAL4  is  not  only  one  of  the  handsomest  of 
all  seals,  but  it  is  also  the  species  most  valuable  to  man. 
It  is  found  on  both  sides  of  North  America,  but  always  in 
cold  waters.  In  the  year  1900  five  sealing  steamers  of  New- 
foundland took  nearly  100,000  seals,  mostly  Harps,  on  the 

1  Pho'ca  foe'ti-da.  3  Pho'ca  mt-u-li'na. 

2  Er-i-gnath'us  bar-ba'tus.  4  Pho'ca  gro-en-land'ic-a. 


138 


SEALS  AND   SEA-LIONS 


, 


HEAD   OF  HOODED   SEAL. 


coast  of  Labrador  and  northward  thereof,  and  the  value  of 
the  catch  was  over  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars. 

This  species  passes  through  several  strongly  marked 
changes  of  pelage  and  color.  The  baby  is  covered  from  nose 

to  flipper-tips  with  a  thick  coat 
of  long,  ^woolly  hair  of  snowy 
whiteness.  This,  when  shed  at 
six  months  after  birth,  is  re- 
placed by  a  coat  of  bluish-gray 
hair,  with  light  trimmings.  On 
reaching  adult  age,  in  its  fifth 
year,  this  animal  is  very  strik- 
ingly marked  by  black  or  dark- 
brown  patches  grouped  together 
on  the  sides  and  back,  on  a 
white  or  yellowish  ground-color  suggestive  of  the  shape  of 
a  harp.  This  seal  is  also  called  the  SADDLE-BACK  and  the 
GREENLAND  SEAL. 

THE  HOODED  SEAL*  of  the  North  Atlantic  is  a  large 
species,  often  attaining  8  feet  in  length.  The  old  males  are 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  flexible  bag  of  skin  on  top 
of  the  nose,  which  is  capable  of  being  inflated  with  air  until 
it  forms  a  lofty  and  remarkable  excrescence  on  the  creature's 
face.  This  sac  is  sometimes  10  inches  long  and  6  inches  high. 
The  color  of  this  seal  is  dark  bluish  gray,  marked  with  irreg- 
ular light  spots.  It  once  came  as  far  south  as  New  Jersey. 

THE  RIBBON  SEAL,  or  HARLEQUIN  SEAL,2  in  its  color  pat- 
tern is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  living  Pinnipeds,  and  there 

1  Cys-toph'o-ra  cris-ta'ta.  2  His-tri-o-pho'ca  fas-ci-a'ta. 


THE  WALRUS  FAMILY  141 

are  many  persons  who  consider  it  the  most  beautiful  member 
of  its  Order.  On  a  smooth  ground-color,  either  of  blackish 
brown  or  yellowish  gray,  Nature  has  sportively  arranged  sev- 
eral yards  of  broad,  yellowish  white  ribbon.  One  strip  goes 
around  the  neck  and  ties  under  the  throat.  From  a  point 
low  down  on  the  breast,  another  starts  upward,  curves  grace- 
fully over  the  shoulder,  drops  down  in  front  of  the  pelvis, 
where  it  comes  together,  then  turns  and  crosses  over  the 
body.  In  many  specimens  the  uniformity  of  the  width  of 
the  ribbon  is  remarkably  well  maintained. 

This  seal  is  from  4  to  6  feet  in  length.  Its  home  is  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  Bering  Sea,  and  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
Lake  Iliamna,  in  the  upper  end  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula. 

THE  WALRUS  FAMILY 

Odobenidae 

Of  all  living  monsters  that  ever  move  upon  land,  the 
PACIFIC  WALRUS1  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful.  A  full- 
grown  male  is  a  living  mountain  of  heaving  flesh,  wrinkled, 
furrowed,  and  seamed,  ugly  as  a  satyr,  and  as  strange  in 
habits  as  in  appearance. 

Its  form  is  that  of  a  sea-lion  with  a  neck  enormously 
thickened.  Its  upper  jaw  is  provided  with  two  long,  strong 
tusks  of  ivory,  and  its  skin  is  almost  destitute  of  hair.  A  full- 
grown  male  measures  from  10  to  12  feet  in  length  from  nose 
to  tail,  the  top  of  its  head  is  about  5  feet  from  the  ground, 
the  girth  of  its  neck  is  from  12  to  14  feet,  and  it  weighs  from 
1,800  to  2,000  pounds.  Its  skin  varies  from  half  an  inch  to 

1  0-do-berius  o-be'sus. 


142  SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 

two  inches  in  thickness;  it  is  of  a  dirty  yellow  color,  and  lies 
on  a  mass  of  fat  which  often  is  six  inches  thick.  The  largest 
pair  of  tusks  now  known  to  the  author  measure  36^  inches 
in  length,  and  are  in  the  National  Collection  of  Heads  and 
Horns,  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society. 

The  Pacific  Walrus  eats  more  or  less  of  aquatic-plant  food, 
but  its  principal  food  is  shell-fish  and  crustaceans.  These  it 
digs  up  from  the  muddy  bottoms  of  the  broad,  shallow  bays 
along  the  coast,  crushes  between  its  powerful  jaws,  and  swal- 
lows in  great  quantities,  shells  and  all!  Crabs  and  shrimps 
form  a  pleasing  variety,  and  for  salad  it  devours  the  bulb- 
ous roots  and  tender  stalks  of  marine  plants  which  in  sum- 
mer grow  in  its  home  waters. 

In  former  times  the  Pacific  Walrus  existed  in  great  herds 
on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  from  the  north  shore  of  the  Alaskan 
Peninsula  northward  through  Bering  Strait,  and  thence  east- 
ward as  far  as  Point  Barrow.  There  the  herds  encountered 
the  edge  of  the  great  permanent  ice-pack,  and  could  go  no 
farther.  In  winter  the  Walrus  herds  float  about  on  the  ice- 
fields, retreating  southward  as  the  edge  of  the  ice  advances. 
In  the  open  sea  the  sleeping  posture  of  the  Walrus  is  float- 
ing bolt  upright  in  the  water.  He  grunts  and  bellows,  and 
many  times  vessels  have  been  warned  off  dangerous,  fog-hid- 
den rocks  by  the  Walrus  lying  upon  them. 

On  land  the  Walrus  is  the  most  clumsy  and  helpless  of 
all  land  animals,  and  is  easily  approached  and  killed.  In 
the  water  it  becomes  a  danger  to  be  avoided,  on  account  of 
its  proneness  to  wreck  small  boats.  A  full-grown  Walrus 
has  never  been  seen  in  captivity,  but  there  is  now  (1914)  ex- 


DEPLETION  OF  THE   WALRUS  HERD  145 

hibited  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  an  Atlantic  walrus 
four  years  old  that  weighs  406  pounds,  and  is  in  perfect 
health. 

Heretofore  steamers  bearing  gold-miners  to  Cape  Nome 
passed  through  herds  of  Walrus  in  Bering  Sea,  and  many  of 
the  animals  were  killed,  wastefully  and  wantonly,  by  passen- 
gers firing  from  the  decks,  with  no  possibility  of  securing  a 
single  victim.  As  elsewhere,  the  instinct  of  man  in  the  far 
North  is  to  slay  and  slay,  and  preserve  no  living  thing. 

The  Walrus  has  been  hunted  so  diligently  for  its  oil  that 
to-day  very  few  remain,  and  the  natives  who  once  depended 
solely  upon  this  animal  for  food,  fuel,  lights,  boats,  dog 
harness,  and  leather  for  all  purposes  now  are  on  the  verge 
of  starvation,  and  are  really  kept  alive  by  public  bounty. 
Previous  to  our  purchase  of  Alaska,  about  10,000  Walrus 
were  killed  annually  by  the  Eskimo,  and  utilized.  In  the 
long,  hard  winter  of  1879-80,  when  the  sea  was  frozen  all 
around  St.  Lawrence  Island,  for  many  miles  in  every  direc- 
tion, the  Walrus  herds  were  forced  to  remain  so  far  away 
that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  save  one  small  settle- 
ment, died  of  starvation. 

At  present  (1914)  there  is  grave  cause  for  alarm  concern- 
ing the  ultimate  fate  of  the  Pacific  Walrus.  Owing  to  the 
unfortunate  fact  that  Bering  Sea,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  north 
of  it,  are  waters  open  to  the  game-hogs  of  all  nations,  the 
herds  are  at  the  mercy  of  all  those  who  choose  to  slaughter 
them.  They  are  being  attacked  viciously,  at  many  different 
points,  always  with  great  slaughter.  The  latest  news  is  to 
the  effect  that  the  Norwegian  whalers  are  now  in  Bering  Sea 


146 


SEALS  AND  SEA-LIONS 


killing  Walruses  for  commercial  purposes;  and  it  is  difficult 
to  foresee  how  the  species  can  be  saved.  To  make  treaties 
for  Walrus  protection  with  all  the  maritime  nations  would  be 
so  long  a  matter  it  is  likely  that  the  Walruses  would  all  be 
killed  before  protection  by  treaty  could  be  made  effective. 

We  greatly  fear  the 
Pacific  Walrus  will  be 
utterly  exterminated 
within  a  very  few 
years. 

THE  ATLANTIC  WAL- 
Rus1  is  of  about  the 
same  length  as  the  Pa- 
cific species,  but  it  has 
a  shorter  and  much 
smaller  neck.  Its  tusks, 
also,  are  much  smaller. 
It  is  still  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  Smith's  Sound, 
and  is  quite  abundant  north  of  Franz  Joseph  Land,  where 
Nansen  photographed  and  killed  many.  Its  most  northerly 
latitude  is  82°.  A  specimen  killed  by  Commander  Robert  E. 
Peary  was  9  feet  in  length,  and  weighed  1,569  pounds.  The 
skin  alone  weighed  220  pounds. 

Professor  L.  L.  Dyche  has  kindly  furnished  the  measure- 
ments of  the  largest  male  Walrus  out  of  eighteen  taken  by 
him  on  the  coast  of  northern  Greenland: 

Length  (straight  line),  end  of  nose  to  end  of  body,  129 
inches. 


YOUNG  ATLANTIC   WALRUS. 

Captured  by  Commander  R.  E.  Peary,  and  exhibited 
in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 


1  0-do-ben'us  ros-ma'rus. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  LARGE  WALRUSES  147 

Tail,  exposed,  none. 
Length  of  rear  flippers,  26  inches. 

Girth  of  animal  when  suspended  by  the  neck,  129  inches. 
Exposed  length  of  tusk,  19  inches. 
Circumference  of  tusk  at  base,  8*4  inches. 
The  largest  cow  Walrus  measured  116  inches  in  length, 
113  in  girth,  exposed  tusk,  10%  inches. 


CHAPTER  V 
ORDER  OF  MOLES  AND  SHREWS 

INSECTIVORA 

IN  the  dark  and  cold  embrace  of  Mother  Earth,  away  from 
the  cheering  sunlight,  and  the  beautiful  upper  world  that 
we  enjoy,  there  dwells  a  group  of  mammals  so  strange,  and 
yet  so  useful  to  man,  that  they  excite  our  admiration  for 
the  wise  purpose  which  developed  and  placed  them  there. 
Pass  not  unthinkingly  the  moles  and  shrews,  for  they  have 
been  most  cunningly  designed  to  serve  a  definite  and  important 
purpose  in  the  economy  of  Nature. 

In  farming  countries  the  top  soil  of  the  earth  is  a  vast 
incubator  for  the  development  of  destructive  insect  larvae. 
In  soil  that  is  rich  and  productive,  "grub worms,"  "cut- 
worms," and  "wireworms"  abound;  and  ^in  regular  rotation 
they  greedily  devour  the  seeds,  roots,  and  leaves  of  growing 
crops.  But  for  the  enemies  which  keep  them  in  check,  there 
would  be  a  hungry  grub  for  every  sprouting  seed. 

And  how  can  man  wage  war  successfully  against  insect 
life  in  the  soil?  Impossible.  To  meet  this  difficult  proposi- 
tion, we  need  a  vigorous  living  creature  with  a  nose  like  a 
gimlet,  sharp-pointed  teeth,  soft  fur,  feet  specially  designed 
for  digging,  and  eyes  so  small  that  to  them  sunlight  is  an 
unnecessary  luxury.  Such  animals  are  found  in  the  moles 

148 


THE  FOOD  OF  MOLES  149 

and  shrews,  of  the  Order  Insectivora,  humble  but  faithful 
workers  in  man's  interest.  Neither  the  horse  nor  the  ox  is 
more  diligent  in  our  service  than  are  these  toilers  of  the  soil. 
Yet  what  is  their  reward? 

In  his  mole-like  blindness,  man  frequently  discovers  things 
that  are  not  true.  Often  a  perfectly  honest  farmer  concludes 
that  a  mole  is  eating  his  seed  corn  in  the  ground,  or  the  veg- 
etables in  the  garden;  and  straightway  the  mole  is  killed. 
His  accuser  has  found  a  runway  following  up  a  row  of  newly 
planted  corn,  and  when  the  seed  fails  to  sprout,  the  mole  is 
accused  of  having  eaten  it! 

In  all  such  cases,  the  mole  is  a  victim  of  circumstantial 
evidence,  and  suffers  through  the  lack  of  counsel  to  cross- 
examine  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecution.  Did  any  one  ever 
find  much  vegetable  food  in  a  mole's  stomach?  Not  often. 
Did  any  one  ever  see  a  mole  eat  vegetable  food?  Probably 
not.  A  mole  placed  in  a  box  and  supplied  with  vegetable 
food  alone  soon  starves  to  death.  Moles  do  not  eat  seed  corn, 
or  garden  vegetables;  but  they  do  visit  corn  hills  to  eat  the 
grubs  that  come  to  devour  the  corn. 

Every  naturalist  must  learn  early  what  constitutes  direct 
evidence.  Far  too  long  have  the  mole  and  shrew  been  con- 
victed and  slain  on  circumstantial  evidence.  Meadow-mice 
sometimes  attack  seed  corn  by  utilizing  the  runways  that 
have  been  made  by  moles  in  reaching  the  corn  hills  to  secure 
the  grubs  that  attack  the  seeds;  and  almost  invariably  the 
testimony  is  that  the  moles  have  done  the  damage.  In  France 
the  value  of  the  mole  is  recognized  by  law,  and  the  killing 
of  one  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  five  francs. 


150 


MOLES  AND  SHREWS 


The  shrews  and  moles  not  only  find  their  food  under- 
ground, but  live  the  entire  cycle  of  their  lives  in  subterranean 
darkness.  Moles  seek  their  food  by  digging  tunnels  in  ground 
that  is  loose  and  dry,  the  roof  being  raised  into  a  ridge  which 


1.  COMMON  MOLE. 


2.  STAR-NOSED  MOLE. 


in  smooth  lawns  is  an  annoying  disfigurement.  Gardeners 
are  apt  to  forget  that  they  always  work  where  insect  larvae 
are  thickest,  and  the  need  for  their  help  is  most  urgent.  The 
tunnel-makers  are  driven  from  lawns  by  persistently  tram- 
pling down  their  runways. 

The  Order  Insectivora  is  represented  in  the  United  States 


PECULIARITIES   OF   THE  COMMON  MOLE  151 

by  two  Families,  the  members  of  which  are  easily  recognized 
by  the  following  well-marked  characters: 

THE  MOLES  have  pointed  heads;  extremely  large  spade- 
like  front  feet,  that  always  are  held  with  the  outer  edge  up ; 
no  neck;  the  front  legs  are  exceedingly  short;  there  is  no  ex- 
ternal ear,  and  no  external  eye;  the  body  is  short,  thick,  and 
clumsy,  and  the  tail  is  hairless. 

THE  SHREWS  have  pointed  heads,  but  small,  rat-like  feet  ; 
there  is  a  very  small  eye,  an  external  ear,  and  a  distinct  neck. 
The  body  is  rather  slender,  and  as  a  whole,  the  animal  looks 
much  like  a  short-tailed  mouse. 

THE  MOLE  FAMILY 

Talpidae 

This  Family  contains  eleven  full  species,  all  quite  interest- 
ing, Their  skins  and  skulls  have  been  studied  closely,  but 
our  information  regarding  their  habits  is  very  meagre.  As  a 
rule,  moles  are  larger  than  shrews.  The  largest  of  all  is  an 
Oregon  species,  which  measures  7  inches  in  length  of  head  and 
body,  with  a  tail  of  \Y%  inches, — an  unusual  size  for  a  mole. 

On  all  moles  the  fur  is  fine,  thick,  very  soft  and  velvety, 
and  faultlessly  smooth  and  clean.  All  these  creatures  love 
sandy  soil,  through  which  they  can  easily  burrow. 

THE  COMMON  MoLE1  is  known  to  the  majority  of  country 
dwellers  by  its  upheaved  tunnels  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
In  appearance  the  animal  is  a  flattened,  oblong  ball  of  fine, 
soft,  shimmering  gray  fur,  6M  inches  long,  to  which  the  naked, 
little  pink-white  tail — which  looks  like  a  small  angleworm — • 

1  Sca'lops  a-quat'i-cus. 


152  MOLES  AND   SHREWS 

adds  1M  inches.  Its  nose  projects  half  an  inch  beyond  its 
mouth,  and  on  the  end  it  feels  as  hard  as  if  it  contained  a 
bone.  It  terminates  in  a  broad,  flattened  point,  shaped  quite 
like  a  rock-drill. 

The  fore  foot  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  but  less 
than  an  inch  in  length,  including  the  claws,  which  measure 

half  an  inch.  In  your  hand,  a 
Mole  is  a  wriggling,  restless 
creature.  Place  it  upon  ground 
that  is  not  packed  hard,  and 
in  about  one  second  it  has 

DIGGING  MUSCLES  OF  A  MOLE.          f°UIld     a     Suitable     Spot     for      an 

opening.  Its  nose  sinks  into 

the  earth  as  if  it  were  a  brad-awl,  with  a  combined  pushing 
and  boring  motion,  and  in  three  seconds  your  Mole's  head 
is  no  longer  in  sight. 

Up  comes  the  powerful  right  foot,  sliding  close  along  the 
side  of  the  head,  edgewise  and  palm  outward,  to  the  end  of  the 
nose.  The  living  chisel  cuts  the  earth  vertically,  and  then 
with  a  quick  motion  it  pries  the  earth  sidewise  from  its  nose. 
Instantly  the  left  foot  does  the  same  thing  on  the  other  side, 
while  the  brad-awl  nose  goes  right  on  boring.  In  ten  seconds, 
by  the  watch,  the  Mole's  body  has  entirely  disappeared,  and 
in  three  minutes  our  Mole  will  tunnel  a  foot,  unless  inter- 
rupted. 

When  skinned  for  dissection,  it  is  found  that  the  eye  is 
merely  a  small,  dark  speck  under  the  skin,  suitable  only  to 
distinguish  light  from  darkness.  The  eyeball  is  about  the 
size  of  a  pin-head.  The  arm  and  forearm  is  a  big,  hard  bundle 


A  DIGGER  OF  HIGH   EFFICIENCY  153 

of  tough  muscles  and  powerful  tendons,  shaped  like  an  In- 
dian club,  of  enormous  size  in  proportion  to  the  creature's 
body. 

The  Mole  is  a  wonderful  example  of  energy  and  power. 
Desiring  to  observe  their  methods  of  working  when  undis- 
turbed, I  once  placed  one  in  a  five-acre  clover  field,  at  11 
o'clock  A.  M.  During  the  first  seven  hours  it  had  tunnelled 
twenty-three  feet,  in  a  zigzag  line.  During  the  next  seven- 
teen hours  it  dug  thirty -five  feet,  and  during  the  next  hour, 
ten  feet  more.  The  total  work  consisted  of  sixty-eight  feet 
of  main  line,  and  thirty-six  and  a  half  feet  of  branches,  mak- 
ing in  all  one  hundred  and  four  and  a  half  feet. 

An  observing  farmer  boy,  named  Lawrence  Miller,  once 
gave  me  a  clear  and  intelligent  description  of  a  Mole's  burrow 
which  he  uncovered  and  observed 
closely.  It  was  a  dome-shaped 
hole,  two  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  reached  from 
above  by  a  hole  that  ran  down 
slanting  into  its  top.  The  burrow  Endorse.  Left  forefoot. 

STAR-NOSED  MOLE. 

was  a  foot  wide  at  the  bottom, 

where  three  small  galleries  ran  off  about  six  inches,  in  dif- 
ferent directions.  Near  the  top  of  the  chamber  was  a  sort 
of  shelf,  supporting  a  bed  of  soft  material,  and  on  this  lay  a 
Mole.  The  young  are  usually  two  in  number. 

Besides  the  Common  Mole,  of  the  eastern  United  States 
generally,  we  have  the  Prairie  or  Silver  Mole  of  the  prairie 
regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley;  the  Hairy-Tailed  Mole  of 
the  eastern  United  States,  and  the  Oregon  Mole  of  the  Pacific 


154 


MOLES  AND   SHREWS 


slope.  The  Star-Nosed  Mole,  of  the  northeastern  United 
States  and  Canada,  is  quickly  recognized  by  the  remarkable 
star-like  appendage  of  eighteen  ray-like  points,  with  four 
more  between  them,  on  the  end  of  its  nose. 

THE  SHREW  FAMILY 

Soricidae 

North  of  Mexico,  this  Family  contains  about  thirty-five 
full  species,  distributed  throughout  nearly  every  portion  of 

North  America  south 
of  a  line  drawn  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie River  to  Labra- 
dor. With  most  cheer- 
ful indifference,  they 
inhabit  mountains, 
plains,  swamp-lands 
and  sandy  seacoasts, 
hot  countries  and  cold. 

Everywhere,  however,  their  noses  are  long  and  sharp,  their 
eyes  and  ears  minute,  and  the  colors  of  all  species  are  very 
sober,  ranging  from  dull  gray  to  brown,  and  ending  in  black. 
There  are  two  species  which  are  so  widely  distributed  they 
may  well  be  taken  as  types  of  the  entire  thirty-five. 

THE  COMMON  SHREW*  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
from  New  England  northwestward  to  Alaska,  and  southward 
through  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina.  Its  color  is  brown  above,  and  dull  gray  under- 

1  So'rex  per-son-a'tus. 


COMMON  SHREW.         SHORT-TAILED  SHREW. 


COMMON  AND  SHORT-TAILED  SHREWS  155 

neath;  head  and  body,  3M  inches  long,  tail,  ¥/%  inches.  The 
ground-plan  of  its  skull  is  a  perfect  triangle  spreading  thirty- 
five  degrees,  and  is  very  flat.  Although  very  soft  and  fine, 
its  fur  is  not  so  velvety  as  that  of  a  mole.  This  creature  is 
very  small,  and  quite  mouse-like  in  appearance. 

Unlike  the  mole,  Shrews  occasionally  emerge  from  their 
burrows,  and  wander  about  near  their  entrances.  But  they 
are  exceedingly  shy,  and  although  they  are  frequently  thrown 
out  by  the  spade  or  plough,  they  are  very  rarely  seen  moving 
about.  Above  ground  they  are  very  helpless,  and  being  unable 
to  run  rapidly,  they  try  in  a  feeble  way  to  hide.  When  taken 
in  the  hand,  the  musky  odor  they  emit  is  rather  disagreeable. 

THE  SHORT -TAILED  SHREW1  is  another  type  worthy  of 
special  mention.  It  is  readily  recognized  by  its  very  short 
tail,  only  1  inch  in  length,  while  its  head  and  body  measure 
4  inches.  Its  color  is  smoky  brown  above,  and  dull  gray 
underneath,  and  in  size  it  is  the  largest  of  the  shrews.  It  is 
found  from  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Great  Plains  to  the  At- 
lantic coast. 

1  Bla-ri'na  bre-vi-cau'da. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ORDER  OF  BATS 

CHIROPTERA 

THE  strange  wing-handed,  flying  mammals  composing 
this  Order  exhibit  differences  in  form  that  are  fairly 
bewildering.  They  range  all  the  way  from  the  beautiful  to 
the  fantastic  and  the  hideous,  and  some  of  them  are  well 
worthy  of  study. 

The  great  majority  of  bats  are  useful  to  man  in  destroy- 
ing the  insects  which,  were  it  not  for  the  birds  and  beasts, 
would  very  soon  overwhelm  him.  The  harmful  species  are 
those  which  destroy  fruit  and  a  few  which  suck  the  blood  of 
domestic  animals. 

Owing  to  certain  natural  conditions,  the  members  of  the 
Bat  Order  as  a  whole  are  almost  as  little  known  as  the  whales 
and  porpoises  of  the  deep  sea.  Our  lack  of  acquaintance  with 
bats  is  due  chiefly  to  their  nocturnal  habits,  and  the  conse- 
quent difficulty  in  observing  them.  To-day  bats  are  so  little 
known  that  there  are  perhaps  a  million  persons  who  only 
know  that  they  fly  at  night,  and  are  "awful  things  to  get 
into  your  hair." 

I  have  seen  thousands  of  bats,  flying  in  many  different 
places,  but  never  yet  saw  one  alight  upon  a  woman's  hair; 
and  I  believe  they  are  no  more  given  to  doing  so  than  are 

156 


QUESTIONS  TO   BE  ANSWERED 


159 


humming-birds.  From  the  bats  of  the  United  States,  there 
is  nothing  to  fear,  for  their  claws  and  teeth  are  pitifully  weak. 
One  cross  old  "bumblebee,"  angrily  bumbling,  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  a  peaceful  community  than  all  the  bats  of  our 
country  taken  together.  In  some  portions  of  South  America, 
however,  the  vampire  bats  cause  serious  trouble. 

Little  is  known  concerning  the  habits  of  bats,  and  much 
remains  to  be  found  out.  These  creatures  are  therefore  ex- 
cellent subjects  for 
original  investigation. 

The  Order  of  Bats 
as  a  whole  contains 
about  four  hundred 
and  fifty  species,  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that 
three-fourths  of  them 
are  known  only  by 
their  dry  skins  and 
skulls,  and  that  their  habits  are  quite  unknown.  The  ques- 
tions are, — Why  do  bats  live?  Upon  what  do  they  feed? 
Are  they  useful  to  man,  or  injurious?  What  are  their  friends 
and  their  enemies?  Do  they  migrate,  and  at  what  times? 
Where  do  they  nest,  or  take  shelter;  and  what  are  the  facts 
about  their  young?  What  parasites  and  diseases  have  they? 

Although  the  bat  is  a  true  mammal,  it  is  almost  as  wide 
a  departure  from  the  ordinary,  four-legged,  land-going  type 
as  is  a  whale  or  manatee.  Its  hand  reveals  an  extreme  de- 
gree of  what  is  called  "specialization."  For  a  mammal,  the 
arms  are  of  great  length.  The  bones  of  the  fingers  are  enor- 


SKELETON  OF  PALE   BAT. 

Antrozous  pallidus. 


160  BATS 

mously  extended,  and  connected  with  hairless  skin  as  flexible 
as  india  rubber,  to  form  a  wing  for  flight.  This  wing  mem- 
brane is  extended  on  up  the  arm  to  the  body  and  the  legs, 
and  is  continued  between  the  legs  and  tail,  where  it  forms  a 
supporting  parachute  in  flight. 

The  thumb  of  a  bat  is  very  short  and  free;  and  its  nail  is 
developed  as  a  hooked  claw,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  creature 
can  comfortably  climb  about  or  support  itself.  The  favorite 
position  of  a  bat  at  rest  is  hanging  by  its  feet,  head  down- 
ward. 

To  be  "as  blind  as  a  bat"  is  not  to  be  blind  at  all,  but 
rather  to  possess  powers  of  vision  that  are  uncommonly  good 
in  semidarkness,  or  at  night,  and  fairly  good  even  in  the 
broad  light  of  day.  When  disturbed  at  midday,  all  the  bats 
I  have  ever  seen  alive  (perhaps  twenty  species  in  all)  have 
flown  away  to  places  of  security  as  briskly  and  successfully 
as  so  many  swallows..  The  eyes  of  all  night-flying  bats  are 
small,  jet-black,  and  look  like  tiny  black  beads,  but  those  of 
the  day -flying  fruit-bats  are  very  much  larger  in  proportion. 

The  teeth  of  bats  of  different  species  show  wide  variation. 
In  nearly  all  of  the  four  hundred  and  fifty  species,  the  canine 
teeth 'are  as  strongly  developed  as  in  the  cat,  and  in  some 
bats  their  proportions  are  really  formidable.  A  careless  exam- 
ination of  a  bat's  skull  might  easily  lead  one  to  believe  that 
it  belonged  to  a  carnivorous  animal.  But  the  molar  teeth 
will  always  tell  the  true  story. 

The  insect-eating  bats,  which  far  outnumber  all  others, 
have  cheek-teeth  which  terminate  in  sharp  points,  and  are 
specially  designed  for  cutting  to  pieces  the  hard  parts  of  hard- 


CURIOUS  PECULIARITIES  161 

shelled  insects.  The  fruit-bats,  however,  have  molars  of  a 
very  different  sort,  with  rather  smooth  crowns,  for  crushing 
instead  of  cutting.  The  blood-sucking  vampire  bats  of 
South  America  have  very  large  canine  teeth  with  sharp,  cut- 
ting edges,  and  even  the  molar  teeth  are  formed  with  scissor 
edges,  very  much  like  the  teeth  of  cats. 

The  teeth  and  skulls  of  bats  exhibit  many  interesting  and 
even  extraordinary  variations,  but  it  is  impossible  to  enumer- 
ate them  here.  The  species  illustrated  on  page  172  is  fairly 
typical  of  the  bats  found  in  the  United  States. 

As  previously  remarked,  very  little  is  known  regarding  the 
habits  of  bats,  chiefly  because  their  nocturnal  habits  make 
it  very  difficult  to  find  them,  or  to  observe  them.  We  know 
that  in  winter  some  of  our  species  live  in  caves,  in  a  semi- 
dormant  condition.  Dr.  C.  H.  Eigenmann  says,  of  the  thou- 
sands that  inhabit  Mammoth  Cave,  "they  fly  readily  if  dis- 
turbed in  summer,  but  in  winter  they  hang  apparently  dead. 
If  disturbed,  a  few  respiratory  movements  may  be  seen,  and 
they  may  utter  a  few  squeaks,  when  they  again  remain  ap- 
parently lifeless.  If  knocked  from  the  roof  some  of  them 
fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  cave  and  flap  about,  others  fly  away. 
I  have  seen  them  leave  a  cave  in  midwinter,  after  being  dis- 
turbed, but  fly  no  further  than  a  hundred  yards,  then  turn 
and  enter  the  cave  again." 

In  central  Montana,  where  there  are  no  trees,  I  once 
found  a  large  colony  of  bats  inhabiting  a  cave  that  a  sub- 
terranean stream  had  washed  under  the  prairie.  In  Arizona 
there  is  a  cave  which  is  said  to  contain  "a  million"  bats. 
Once  while  hunting  elephants  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  the 


162  BATS 

attention  of  my  companion  and  myself  was  arrested  by  a 
strange,  pungent  odor  which  filled  the  air.  Upon  investi- 
gating the  cause  of  it,  we  discovered  a  large  cave  of  a  very 
interesting  character,  inhabited  by  thousands  of  bats,  and 
floored  with  a  layer  of  bat  guano  a  foot  or  more  in  depth, 

representing  the  accumulation  of  a  century. 

• 

In  warm  countries  bats  inhabit  hollow  trees.  But  do 
they  inhabit  such  homes,  and  actually  hibernate  in  them  in 
winter,  in  the  temperate  zone?  On  this  point  direct  evi- 
dence is  desirable.  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam  has  proved  that 
some  bats  of  the  North  American  temperate  zone  do  migrate 
as  birds  do,  going  south  in  winter  and  returning  in  spring. 

The  conditions  of  wild  life  in  the  temperate  zone  are 
rather  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  large  bats,  and  for 
this  reason  none  of  the  bats  of  the  United  States  are  of  large 
size  or  commanding  importance.  The  large  fruit-bats,  or 
"flying  foxes,"  can  exist  only  where  they  can  procure  a  good 
supply  of  fruit  all  the  year  round;  and  for  this  reason  they 
are  mainly  confined  to  the  tropics.  During  our  northern  win- 
ter, a  true  vampire  bat  could  indeed  prey  upon  the  blood  of 
domestic  animals;  but  in  zero  weather,  the  naked  wings  of 
such  a  creature  would  freeze  stiff  in  a  very  few  moments. 
The  large  vampire  bat  of  India,  for  some  reason  called  the 
"false"  vampire  (Meg-a-der'ma  ly'ra),  which  devours  small 
frogs,  fishes,  small  birds,  and  even  bats  smaller  than  itself, 
could  live  in  our  southern  and  southwestern  states,  but  it 
would  be  impossible  for  it  to  go  far  north  of  the  frost  line.  All 
bats  inhabiting  the  colder  regions  of  the  temperate  zone,  within 
the  snow  limit,  must  either  hibernate  in  winter  or  migrate. 


LEAF-NOSED  BATS  163 

Owing  to  the  great  number  of  species  of  bats,  and  to  the 
many  groups  into  which  they  have  been  divided,  it  is  desir- 
able to  mention  here  only  a  few  examples  with  which  every 
intelligent  person  should  be  acquainted. 

The  bats  have  been  divided  by  Nature  into  two  Suborders, 
and  six  Families,  as  follows: 

THE  ORDER  OF  BATS 

Order  Chiroptera 

SUBORDER  OF  INSECT-EATING  BATS:  Mi-cro-chi-rop'ter-a 

FAMILIES  EXAMPLES 

[  Leaf-Nosed  Bat. 

,,.  7  Blainville's  Bat. 

LEAF-NOSED  BATS  ......  Phyl-los-to-mati-dae  •  .  \  j       i-    T> 

[  Great  Vampire. 


FREE-TAILED  BATS.  .      .  .Em-bal-lo-nu'ri-dae.  .  .       T 

Naked  Bat. 

Red  Bat. 
COMMON  BATS  ..........  Ves-per-til-i-on'i-dae  .  .  \  Gray  Bat. 

[  Big-Eared  Bat. 
FALSE  VAMPIRES  ........  Meg-a-der-mat'i-dae  .  .  .     False  Vampire. 

HORSESHOE  BATS  ........  Rhi-no-loph'i-dae  ..... 

SUBORDER  OF  FRUIT-EATING  BATS:  Meg-a-chi-rop'ter-a 

FLYING  FOXES  ..........  Pter-o-pod'i-dae  .......  <  -^^ 

[  Hammer-Headed  r>at. 


THE  FAMILY  OF  LEAF-NOSED  BATS 

Phyllostomatidae 

The  members  of  this  Family  bear  on  their  noses  thin 
leaves  of  naked  skin  that  stand  erect  behind,  or  partly  around, 
the  nostrils.  These  wonderful  nose-leaves  are  pear-shaped, 
heart-shaped,  wedge-like,  and  of  many  other  forms.  The 
ears  are  large,  or  very  large;  the  wing  membrane  reaches 


164 


BATS 


down  to  the  foot;  the  tail  is  long,  and  sometimes  extends 
a  short  distance  beyond  the  interfemoral  membrane.  On 
the  whole,  the  bats  of  this  Family  form  an  astonishing  ex- 
hibit of  facial  oddities.  All  save  a  few  species  are  confined 
to  South  America. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  LEAF-NOSED  B4T1  may  be  taken  as  a 
very  modest  example,  because  it  bears  what  is  really  a  very 

simple  form  of  nose- 
leaf.  It  is  found  in 
southern  California  and 
Mexico,  and  its  pelage 
is  very  light-colored. 

The  most  remark- 
able of  all  bat  faces  is 
that  of  a  small,  brown- 
colored  West  Indian 
species  known  as  BLAIN- 
VILLE'S  BAT.2  As  a 

sport  of  Nature  it  stands  fairly  unrivalled,  and  shows  what 
is  possible  in  the  fashioning  of  skin  into  ornamental  forms. 
The  ears  are  large  and  of  most  fantastic  form,  the  chin  is 
bedecked  with  a  highly  convoluted  bib  of  skin,  and  the  eyes 
and  nostrils  are  almost  lost  amid  the  leaves  and  tubercles 
which  cover  the  muzzle.  As  a  whole,  the  appearance  of  the 
face  of  this  bat  suggests  a  highly  complicated  flower,  like  a 
double  pansy.  The  skull  is  only  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
length.  This  species  is  quite  uncommon,  and  practically 
nothing  is  known  of  its  habits. 

1  0-top'ter-us  cal-i-for'ni-cus±  2  Mor'moops  blairivill-ii. 


CALIFORNIA  LEAF-NOSED   BAT. 
(After  Harrison  Allen.) 


POSSESSORS  OF  A  SIXTH  SENSE? 


165 


In  fashioning  the  noses  and  ears  of  bats,  Nature  has  done 
some  very  odd  and  curious  work.  The  flowers  of  orchids  are 
not  more  oddly  fashioned  than  the  heads  and  faces  of  some 
species. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  queer  facial 
appendages  and  long  ears  of  the  leaf-nosed  bats  are  purely 
ornamental.  Dr.  George  E.  Dobson,  one  of  the  greatest 
authorities  on  bats,  has  pointed  out 
two  very  curious  facts.  (1)  The  bats 
with  small  ears  and  no  nose-leaves  fly 
most  in  the  early  twilight;  and  many, 
such  as  the  fruit-bats,  fly  in  the  day- 
time. (2)  The  long-eared  and  leaf- 
nosed  bats  prefer  darkness,  and  seek 
their  food  only  at  night. 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  a  reason  for 
this.  A  cruel  investigator  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  named  Spallanzani, 
once  destroyed  the  eyesight  of  several  bats,  then  suspended 
many  silken  threads  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room  and  liberated 
the  creatures.  Although  totally  blind,  the  bats  flew  to  and 
fro  between  the  threads,  without  once  striking  them,  and  were 
equally  successful  in  avoiding  branches  of  trees  that  were 
introduced.  It  now  seems  certain  that  some  bats  possess  a 
sixth  sense,  of  which  at  present  we  know  nothing,  by  which 
they  are  able  to  fly  in  total  darkness,  and  avoid  even  the 
smallest  obstructions. 

It  seems  quite  probable  that  the  long  ears  and  nose-leaves 
of  the  night-going  bats  aid  their  owners  in  guiding  their 


BLAINVILLE'S   FLOWER- 
NOSED   BAT. 

(After  Peters.) 


166  BATS 

flight;  but  the  precise  manner  in  which  it  is  done  remains  to 
be  discovered. 

THE  TRUE  VAMPIRE  BATS. — By  this  name  we  seek  to  dis- 
tinguish the  bats  which  actually  suck  the  blood  of  living 
creatures  from  the  so-called  vampires  which  live  on  fruit. 
In  South  America  there  are  five  species  of  true  vampires, 
three  of  which  are  known  as  the  javelin  bats,  the  others  as 
the  short-nosed  vampires.  The  centre  of  abundance  of  these 
creatures  appears  to  be  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
Rio  Negro,  and  the  adjacent  regions;  but  one  of  the  species 
ranges  all  the  way  from  Chile  to  Mexico. 

Of  the  true  vampires,  the  JAVELIN  BAT1  is  the  one  which 
is  most  aggressive,  and  most  dreaded.  It  bites  horses  and 
cattle,  usually  on  the  shoulders,  neck,  or  hind  quarters,  and 
makes  a  wound  in  the  skin  of  sufficient  depth  to  cause  blood 
to  flow  freely,  even  after  the  bat  has  flown  away.  Naturally, 
an  animal  that  is  thus  preyed  upon  soon  grows  thin  in  flesh, 
and  becomes  visibly  weakened.  On  the  island  of  Mucina, 
in  the  delta  of  the  Amazon,  the  serious  injuries  inflicted  by 
the  Javelin  Bats  upon  domestic  animals  have  long  been 
known. 

But  where  true  vampires  are  abundant,  they  do  not  con- 
fine their  attacks  to  domestic  animals.  Human  beings  are 
occasionally  called  upon  to  pay  blood  tribute  to  the  small 
wing-handed  demons  of  the  air.  Men  are  bitten  at  night, 
when  asleep,  usually  either  upon  the  nose  or  the  feet.  With 
its  sharp-edged  teeth,  the  creature  makes  a  very  small  round 
hole  in  the  skin,  and  by  means  of  mouth  suction  which  must 

1  Phyl-hs'to-ma  has-ta'tum. 


THE  TRUE  VAMPIRES  167 

be  quite  powerful,  the  blood  is  soon  flowing  freely.  Fortu- 
nately, blood-poisoning  is  not  an  attendant  evil  of  the  vam- 
pire's bite,  and  the  wound  seldom  becomes  painful. 

The  common  Javelin  Bat  measures  a  little  less  than  4 
inches  in  length  of  head  and  body,  and  in  color  is  reddish 
brown.  All  the  other  true  vampires  are  smaller,  and  all  are 


BONNETED  BAT. 

Promops  calif ornicus.    (After  Harrison  Allen.) 

practically  tailless,  the  parachute  membrane  stretching  be- 
tween the  legs,  quite  down  to  the  feet,  without  the  support 
of  tail  vertebrae.  Naturally,  these  creatures  are  widely 
known;  for  any  bat  which  lives  upon  warm  blood,  always 
drawn  from  a  living  fountain,  is  bound  to  acquire  wide  no- 
toriety and  a  very  evil  reputation.  The  skull  of  a  Javelin 
Bat,  seen  in  profile,  looks  very  much  like  the  skul  of  a  minia- 
ture wolf. 

In  order  to  illustrate  once  more  how  easily  a  harmless 
animal  can  acquire  an  evil  reputation,  and  further  empha- 
size the  necessity  of  taking  direct  evidence  before  pronoun- 
cing a  verdict,  we  introduce  a  28-inch  bat  from  South  Amer- 


168  BATS 

ica,  most  unjustly  called  the  GREAT  VAMPIRE,*  but  not  really 
belonging  to  the  genus  of  bloodsuckers.  Mr.  H.  W.  Bates, 
the  "Naturalist  on  the  Amazon,"  lived  for  a  time  where  this 
species  was  quite  abundant,  and  of  it  he  wrote  in  his  book 
as  follows: 

"Nothing  in  animal  physiognomy  can  be  more  hideous 
than  the  countenance  of  this  creature  when  viewed  from  the 
front;  the  large,  leathery  ears  standing  out  from  the  sides 
and  top  of  the  head;  the  erect,  spear-shaped  appendage 
[nose-leaf]  on  the  tip  of  the  nose,  the  grin,  and  the  glisten- 
ing black  eye,  all  combining  to  make  up  a  figure  that  reminds 
one  of  some  mocking  imp  in  a  fable.  [The  very  savage- 
looking  canine  teeth  might  well  have  been  mentioned,  also.] 
No  wonder  that  imaginative  people  have  inferred  diabolical 
instincts  on  the  part  of  so  ugly  an  animal.  The  Vampire, 
however,  is  the  most  harmless  of  all  bats."  Mr.  Bates  opened 
the  stomachs  of  a  number  of  specimens,  and  found  that  "they 
had  been  feeding  chiefly  on  fruits,"  and  wild  fruits,  at  that, 
obtained  by  honest  hunting  in  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

Moral:  Never  make  an  affidavit  on  the  food  habits  of 
wild  animals  without  first  examining  the  stomachs  of  several 
specimens. 

THE  FAMILY  OF  FREE-TAILED  BATS 

Emballonuridae 

The  bats  belonging  to  this  Family  have  no  nose-leaves, 
and  the  tail  is  partly  free  from  the  membrane  between  the 
legs,  either  rising  from  its  upper  surface,  or  projecting  be- 

1  Vam-py'rus  spec'trum. 


THE   MOST  REMARKABLE  SPECIES  169 

yond  its  end.  The  muzzle  is  rather  blunt,  and  the  nostrils 
open  beyond  the  upper  lip. 

THE  BONNETED  BAT,1  of  California  and  Mexico,  is  one 
of  the  largest  of  our  species  of  free-tailed  bats.  Above  the 
shoulders  it  looks  like  a  rat  wearing  a  poke  bonnet.  Its 
head-and-body  length  is  %%  inches,  tail  1M,  total  length  of 
ear,  \%  inches.  One-half  the  tail  is  free. 

THE  NAKED  BAT,2  of  Borneo,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  species  of  the  entire  Order  of  Bats, 
and  in  some  respects  is  the  widest  departure  from  the  typical 
bat.  In  the  interior  mountains  of  Sarawak,  Borneo,  I  once 
secured  ten  fine  specimens,  and  to  me  they  are  as  wonderful 
to-day  as  when  handled  for  the  first  time. 

As  its  name  implies,  this  bat  is  practically  destitute  of 
hair,  the  only  hair  noticeable  being  a  few  stiff,  black  bristles 
on  the  neck,  and  a  little  microscopic  fuzz  on  the  breast  and 
hind  quarters.  The  skin  is  thick  and  leathery,  lying  in  nu- 
merous creases  and  folds,  and  on  the  living  animal  it  is 
very  elastic.  There  is  no  nose-leaf,  and  the  lips  are  very 
thick  and  fleshy.  The  tail  is  free  of  parachute  membrane 
for  two-thirds  of  its  length,  and  is  quite  like  the  tail  of  a 
mole.  On  the  joint  at  the  base  of  the  thumb  there  is  a 
large,  callous  tubercle,  which  indicates  that  this  bat  is  much 
given  to  crawling  about  on  "all  fours,"  on  rocks  and  tree- 
trunks. 

Around  the  neck  the  skin  lies  in  two  thick  folds,  and 
in  these,  directly  under  the  chin,  is  situated  a  deep  gland 
or  sac  which  secretes  a  gummy  substance  with  an  odor  both 

1  Pro'mops  cal-i-for'ni-cus.  *  Chei-ro-me'les  tor-qua'tus. 


170  BATS 

strong  and  disagreeable.  Clearly,  like  the  scent-gland  of 
the  skunk,  it  is  for  defence. 

The  most  wonderful  feature  of  the  Naked  Bat  is  yet  to 
be  noticed.  On  seeing  this  species  for  the  first  time,  one's 
first  thought  is,  how  do  the  young  bats  cling  to  the  parents 
during  flight? 

Nature,  ever  wise  and  provident,  has  answered  this  ques- 
tion by  placing  under  each  arm  of  this  bat  a  deep,  wide  pocket 
of  rubber-like  skin,  in  which  the  ,young  are  carried  until  they 
are  able  to  fly!  The  mouth  of  this  pocket  is  on  a  line  between 
the  elbow  and  the  knee,  and  it  extends  upward  and  back- 
ward, over  the  entire  shoulder,  quite  to  the  back-bone,  where 
the  two  sacs  are  separated  by  a  thin  partition  of  skin.  The 
pouch  is  1M  inches  deep,  and  in  its  lower  portion,  against 
the  ribs,  is  located  the  mammary  gland.  On  the  whole,  this 
is  the  most  wonderful  infant-pouch  possessed  by  any  living 
creature,  not  even  excepting  that  of  the  marsupials,  which  is 
much  more  simple. 

My  largest  specimen  of  this  bat  had  a  head-and-body 
length  of  5^  inches,  tail  2  inches  long,  and  a  wing  expanse 
of  22  inches.  In  the  skin  were  many  curious  folds.  The 
face  of  the  Naked  Bat  is  coarse  and  ugly,  and  the  body  is 
quite  devoid  of  grace  and  beauty;  but  ere  one  has  time  to 
scoff  at  such  homeliness,  the  creature  seems  to  say,—  "Study 
me;  for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made!" 

This  bat  lives  upon  fruit  and  vegetation,  and  nests  in 
hollow  trees,  rock  crevices,  or  in  holes  in  the  earth.  The 
illustration  on  page  157  was  drawn  from  one  of  my  Bornean 
specimens. 


THE  BATS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  171 

THE  FAMILY  OF  COMMON  BATS 

Vespertilionidae 

These  are  the  bats  that  are  the  most  numerous  and  the 
most  widely  known.  Dr.  E.  L.  Trouessart  recognizes  more 
than  200  species.  They  range  over  all  portions  of  the  world 
that  are  habitable  by  small  bats. 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  members  of  this 
Family  are  chiefly  negative.  There  are  no  nose-leaves,  the 
nostril  openings  are  simple,  and  the  tail  does  not  extend  far 
beyond  the  interfemoral  membrane. 

All  the  bats  of  the  United  States  are  of  small  or  medium 
size,  and  the  majority  of  them  belong  to  this  Family.  Along 
the  Atlantic  coast  they  are  so  common  that  nearly  every 
person  living  beyond  the  confines  of  the  great  cities  is  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  at  least  one  species.  The  common- 
est is  the  beautiful  little  RED  BAT1  which  appears  in  the  early 
twilight,  gliding  on  swift  yet  noiseless  wings  up  and  down 
the  shaded  streets  and  roads,  and  occasionally  making  a 
friendly  diversion  into  an  open  window,  or  through  your 
veranda,  partly  for  business  purposes,  and  partly  as  an  evi- 
dence of  friendly  regard. 

In  midsummer  sharp  eyes  sometimes  find  this  bat  hang- 
ing close  in  amongst  the  leaves  of  a  chestnut-tree,  its  delicate 
fur  as  red  as  the  brightest  iron-rust.  Touch  it  ever  so  gently 
and  whisk!  it  is  off  as  swiftly  as  a  swallow,  to  seek  another 
and  a  better  hiding-place. 

From  sunset  until  it  grows  quite  dark,  it  is  very  busy, 

1  Las-i-u'rus  bo-re-al'is. 


172 


BATS 


and  constantly  on  the  wing.  The  Red  Bat  is  a  swift  flier, 
and  much  more  of  an  aerial  gymnast  than  any  bird  I  know. 
In  its  flight  it  can  turn  abruptly  with  marvellous  precision, 
and  to  me  it  is  a  constant  source  of  wonder  that  it  can  fly  so 


THE   RED  BAT. 

rapidly,  turn  and  double  so  quickly,  and  dart  in  all  possible 
directions  without  striking  something.  Almost  any  bird  at- 
tempting to  fly  over  the  course  of  a  Red  Bat,  and  at  the 
same  speed,  would  probably  come  to  grief  in  a  very  short 
time. 

The  only  mistake  that  Red  Bats  are  prone  to  make  is  in 
flying  into  houses  through  open  windows,  and  instantly  for- 
getting the  location  of  the  means  of  escape.  Once  in  a  room, 


ADVENTURE  OF  A  BRITISH  BAT  173 

the  bat  flies  slowly,  and  frequently  is  so  bewildered  by  the 
sudden  change  from  semidarkness  to  light  that  it  strikes  a 
wall,  and  falls  to  the  floor.  Although  many  persons  are  nerv- 
ous about  bats,  I  have  noticed  that  whenever  one  flies  in, 
some  kind-hearted  and  sensible  person  generally  cries  out: 
"Don't  kill  it!" 

While  crossing  the  Atlantic  quite  recently,  a  British 
LONG-EARED  BAT  was  found  on  board  the  steamer,  thirty 
miles  from  the  nearest  land,  clinging  to  the  rail,  wet  and 
weary.  At  that  time  there  was  no  breeze  from  the  land. 

When  taken  into  the  library,  its  wet  fur  soon  dried,  and 
it  began  to  fly  to  and  fro.  In  a  short  time  the  room  was 
well  filled  with  passengers,  who  watched  the  exhibition  with 
great  interest.  When  caught  and  held  for  close  examination, 
it  did  not  squeak  shrilly  and  protest  as  the  Red  Bat  usually 
does.  After  having  served  as  a  useful  object-lesson  for  a  large 
number  of  young  people,  our  strange  visitor  was  brought  safely 
to  New  York  harbor  and  liberated. 

THE  GRAY  BAT1  is  one  of  the  largest  and  handsomest 
species  inhabiting  the  northeastern  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. It  is  also  found  throughout  the  middle  West  from  Ohio 
to  California  and  from  Manitoba  to  New  Mexico.  This  is 
a  species  well  worth  looking  for.  It  has  small  ears,  a  head- 
and-body  length  of  3  inches,  tail  2  inches,  and  it  is  readily 
distinguished  by  its  dark-brown  hair  tipped  with  silvery  white. 

THE  BIG-EARED  BAT2  of  the  south  Atlantic  states  has 
ears  of  incredible  height  and  width  for  a  creature  so  small. 
In  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  wearer,  these  ears  are  the 

1  At-a-la'pha  cin'e-re-a.  2  Co-ry-no-rhi'nus  ma-cro'tis. 


174  BATS 

largest  worn  by  any  American  mammal.  •  They  are  one-half 
as  long  as  the  entire  head  and  body,  being  1J^  inches  in  height 
and  nearly  1  inch  wide,  while  the  head  and  body  measure 
only  2J/2  inches. 


THE  FAMILY  OF  FALSE   VAMPIRES 

Megadermatidae 

This  Family  is  absent  from  America,  but  is  mentioned 
here  to  fill  what  otherwise  would  be  a  gap.  The  members 
of  one  genus,  Megaderina,  are  noted  for  their  carnivorous 
habits.  The  most  noteworthy  species  is  well  worthy  of  men- 
tion. 

THE  "FALSE"  VAMPIRE  BAT,  of  India  and  Burma,  bears 
a  name  which  is  quite  misleading;  for  in  its  habits  this 
creature  is  far  from  being  a  "false"  Vampire.  It  devours 
frogs,  small  fishes,  bats  smaller  than  itself,  and  even  small 
birds.  It  has  very  large  ears,  an  elaborate  nose-leaf,  a  head- 
and-body  length  of  3  inches,  and  a  wing  expanse  of  16  inches. 

THE  FAMILY  OF  HORSESHOE  BATS 

RJtinolophidae 

This  Family  contains  thirty  species  of  small  bats,  all  of 
which  are  restricted  to  the  Old  World. 

THE  FAMILY  OF  FRUIT-EATING  BATS 

Pteropodidav 

The  members  of  this  Family  are  bats  of  very  large  size, 
with  foxlike  heads,  dense  and  abundant  pelage,  large  eyes, 
and  free  tails  when  tails  are  present.  They  are  quite  diurnal 


FRUIT-EATING  BATS,  OB  FLYING  "FOXES." 


FRUIT  BATS,  OR  FLYING   "FOXES"  177 

in  their  habits,  and  feed  almost  exclusively  upon  fruit.  They 
inhabit  India,  Ceylon,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  eastern 
Australia,  and  are  almost  the  only  bats  that  find  their  way 
into  captivity  for  exhibition  purposes.  They  are  very  sociable 
in  their  habits,  and  live  in  colonies  of  from  five  to  fifty  indi- 
viduals. 

THE  FLYING  "Fox."1— The  largest  of  the  bats  which  we 
ordinarily  see  darting  through  the  gloaming  with  irregular, 
jerky  flight,  are  about  as  large  as  purple  martins- — tiny  crea- 
tures, weak,  and  quite  incapable  of  offence.  In  the  East 
Indies,  however,  and  also  in  Australia,  there  are  bats  of 
enormous  size.  These  are  known  as  FRUIT  BATS,  or  FLYING 
"FoxES."  Some  of  those  shot  by  the  author  in  Ceylon  had 
wings  which  spread  forty  inches. 

On  one  occasion  I  found  the  top  of  a  small  tree,  about 
fifty  feet  high,  filled  with  these  animals.  They  hung  head 
downward  from  the  upper  branches,  in  places  so  thickly  as  to 
crowd  each  other — quarrelling,  squealing  shrilly,  and  climb- 
ing about.  To  see  nearly  a  hundred  bats  of  such  huge  size 
hanging  in  one  tree-top,  quite  at  home  in  the  broad  glare 
of  a  tropical  afternoon  sun,  was  a  strange  and  impressive 
sight.  I  had  been  asked  to  procure  and  preserve  for  Ameri- 
can museums  six  dozen  specimens  of  that  species,  and  when 
after  long  observation  I  finally  fired  into  the  bunch,  the  black 
and  brown  cloud  of  giant  bats  that  rose  in  the  air,  and  slowly 
flapped  away,  was  one  of  the  most  gruesome  sights  I  ever 
saw  in  animal  life.  Of  all  creatures  that  fly,  none  are  so 
thoroughly  uncanny  when  outlined  against  the  sky  as  the  big, 

1  Pter'o-pus  ed'wards-i. 


178  BATS 

black-winged,  half -naked  Flying  "  Foxes."     They  suggest  de- 
mons and  calamities. 

The  Flying  "Fox"  derives  its  name  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  head  to  that  of  a  very  small  fox.  It  feeds  wholly  upon 
fruit,  and  when  it  inhabits  well-settled  districts  it  is  cordially 
disliked  by  every  person  who  owns  a  fruit-tree.  In  some  por- 
tions of  Australia,  these  creatures  have  done  great  damage 

to  fruit,  and  energetic  measures,  such  as 
the  explosion  of  dynamite  among  them, 
have  been  resorted  to  for  their  de- 
struction. 

Some  of  the  fruit-growers  of  Cali- 
fornia are  so  apprehensive  of  this  crea- 
.ture,  and  so  fearful  that  it  may  be 
"introduced,"  that  they  have  secured 
the  passage  of  a  law  by  which  the  im- 
portation  of  the  Flying  "Fox"  is  pro- 
hibited so  rigidly  that  not  one  specimen  can  be  imported, 
even  for  exhibition  in  a  zoological  garden.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  fear  of  the  presence  of  the  Flying  "Fox"  in  the 
United  States  is  quite  as  groundless  as  the  old  fear  of 
being  quill-shot  by  Canada  porcupines.  It  certainly  would 
be  very  difficult  to  introduce  that  species,  and  keep  it  from 
being  exterminated,  except  possibly  in  some  of  our  insular 
possessions. 

In  the  Fly  ing-"  Fox"  Family  is  found  another  remarkable 
variation  in  bat  physiognomy,  the  HAMMER-HEADED  BAT,X 
a  species  discovered  in  the  land  of  the  gorilla  by  Du  Chaillu. 

1  Ep-o-moph'o-rus. 


A  LARGE  BAT  179 

The  head  of  the  animal  is  of  large  proportions  as  compared 
with  the  body,  and  the  muzzle  is  enormously  enlarged.  In 
general  outline,  the  head  in  profile  is  much  like  the  head  of 
a  moose.  This  is  quite  a  large  bat,  its  wing  expanse  being 
28  inches. 


CHAPTER  VII 

- 

ORDER  OF  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

GLIRES,  OR  RODENTS 

THE  Order  of  Gnawing  Animals  contains  a  great  many 
species,  and  to  persons  who  have  not  studied  it  with 
some  attention,  it  is  a  chaotic  jumble  of  living  creatures. 
This  unsatisfactory  condition  is  entirely  unnecessary.  A  few 
hours'  diligent  study — under  helpful  conditions — will  give  any 
intelligent  person  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  chief  subdivisions 
of  this  Order,  and  an  acquaintance  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  examples  that  each  strange  North  American  rodent  met 
with  can  be  referred  to  its  proper  Family. 

The  list  of  families,  and  the  number  of  species  recognized 
in  each  by  Dr.  D.  G.  Elliot  on  July  1,  1905,  is  shown  below. 
Since  the  date  mentioned,  a  few  additional  forms  have  been 
described. 

ORDER  GLIRES,  OR  RODENTIA 
(NORTH  OF  PANAMA) 

FULL   SPECIES        SUBSPECIES 
NORTH   AMERICAN   FAMILIES  IN    1905  IN    1905 


I. 

SQUIRREL  FAMILY  

.  Sd-u'ri-dae  

125 

124 

II. 

SEWELLEL  FAMILY  

.  Ap-lo-don'li-dae  .  .  . 

4 

2 

III. 

BEAVER  FAMILY  

.  Cas-tor'i-dae  

1 

3 

IV. 

RATS,  MICE  AND  VOLES  . 

.  Mu'ri-dae  

383 

180 

V. 

POCKET  GOPHERS  

.Ge-o-my'i-dae  

84 

24 

VI. 

KANGAROO  RATS  

.  Het-e-ro-my'i-dae  .  . 

93 

57 

VII. 

JUMPING  MICE  

.Za-pod'i-dae  

11 

9 

180 

THE  SQUIRREL  FAMILY  181 


NORTH   AMERICAN   FAMILIES 

FULL  SPECIES 
IN  1905 

SUBSPECIES 

IN  1905 

VIII. 

SPINY  RATS  AND  HUTIAS 

.Oc-to-donfti-dae.  .  .  . 

12 

3 

IX. 

PORCUPINE  FAMILY 

.  E-reth-i-zontf  i-dae  .  . 

6 

5 

X. 

AGOUTI  FAMILY  

A-gou'ti-dae  

8 

0 

XL 

PIKA  or  "  CHIEF  HARE  "  1 
FAMILY                         J 

0-cho-ton'i-dae  .  .  .  . 

7 

0 

XII. 

HARE  AND  RABBIT 
FAMILY                        j 

Le-por'  i-dae  

50 

46 

THE  SQUIRREL  FAMILY 

In  order  to  avoid  recognizing  a  large  number  of  Families 
for  animals  that  are  closely  related,  zoologists  have  agreed  that 
the  Squirrel  Family  shall  contain  the  marmots  and  a  number 
of  other  animals  that  are  closely  related  to  squirrels.  To 
make  this  point  clear,  observe  this  diagram: 

SQUIRREL  FAMILY 
(IN  AMERICA) 
Tree  Squirrels  ..............  Sciurus. 


TRUE  SQUIRRELS. 


Rock  Squirrels Tamias,  etc. 

Ground  Squirrels Citellus. 

, T  f  Prairie-'* Dogs" Cynomys. 

MARMOTS <  Tir     ,  ,      ,  &  ,/ 

( Woodchucks Marmota. 

FLYING  SQUIRRELS Sciuropterus. 

All  these  creatures  appeal  strongly  to  persons  who  live  in 
the  country,  or  visit  city  parks.  Go  anywhere  in  the  tem- 
perate zone,  and  you  will  find  some  of  them,  ready  to  greet 
you,  and  make  friends  with  you  if  you  choose.  You  have 
but  to  use  your  eyes,  and  you  will  see  them.  In  the  East 
you  have  the  gray  squirrel  and  chipmunk;  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  the  fox  squirrel;  on  the  Great  Plains  the  ground 
squirrels  and  prairie-' 'dogs";  in  the  West  the  Douglas  squir- 


182  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

rel,  and  a  bewildering  array  of  chipmunks  and  ground  squir- 
rels. He  who  fails  to  learn  their  names,  and  make  friends 
with  them,  loses  much  pleasure. 

The  members  of  the  Squirrel  Family  are  so  widely  dis- 
tributed,  and  have  grown  so  accustomed  to  man  and  his 


GRAY   SQUIRREL. 

ways,  that  there  are  few  persons  who  have  not  seen  at  least 
two  or  three  wild  species  in  their  haunts.  Their  lives  are 
full  of  incident  and  interest,  and  to  the  young  naturalist,  ani- 
mal artist  or  sculptor  they  are  usually  the  most  available  of 
all  wild-animal  subjects. 

A  very  attractive  book  might  be  written  about  the  many 
beautiful  and  interesting  species  of  squirrels  that  are  found 
throughout  North  America,  the  number  of  which  is  surpris- 
ingly great.  The  total  number  of  species  and  subspecies 
described  is  249.  Many  of  these,  however,  resemble  each 
other  so  closely  that  their  differences  are  too  slight  for  our 


THE  TREE-SQUIRREL  GROUP  183 

consideration;  and  there  may  be  a  number  that  are  not  en- 
titled to  stand  as  independent  forms. 

Nature  has  divided  the  many  species  of  North  American 
squirrels  into  three  easily  remembered  groups,  as  follows: 

TREE  SQUIRRELS,  which  live  in  the  tree-tops.  Example: 
Eastern  Gray  Squirrel. 

ROCK  SQUIRRELS,  which  live  in  rocks,  fences,  and  among 
the  roots  of  large  trees.  Example:  the  Common  Chipmunk. 

GROUND  SQUIRRELS,  of  prairie  countries,  which  burrow 
deeply  in  the  earth.  Example:  the  Striped  Spermophile. 

In  each  of  these  three  groups  there  are  several  important 
types  which  must  be  noticed. 

The  Tree-Squirrel  Group 

A  patch  of  timber  or  a  wood-lot  without  squirrels  always 
conveys  an  impression  of  lonesome  solitude  and  something 
gone — like  a  country  graveyard.  There  is  no  other  animal 
of  equal  size  that  can  add  so  much  of  life  and  cheerfulness 
to  a  hardwood  forest  or  a  meadow  as  a  good  healthy  squirrel. 
Why  is  it  that  American  men  and  boys  kill  them  so  eagerly? 
Surely  the  flesh  of  their  little  bodies  is  not  needed  as  food. 
It  has  a  taste  so  queer  and  rank  that  to  many  persons 
it  is  decidedly  unpalatable.  Americans  are  the  only  white 
men  on  earth  who  eat  squirrels.  An  Englishman  would  as 
readily  eat  a  rat! 

Possibly  their  flesh  was  necessary  to  the  hardy  but  hun- 
gry pioneers  of  the  early  days;  but  to-day  we  have  no  ex- 
cuse for  shooting  any  squirrels,  save  the  quarrelsome  red 
squirrel.  Surely  no  true  sportsman  or  right-minded  boy 


184  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

can  find  any  real  "sport"  in  "potting"  squirrels  out  of  the 
tree-tops. 

Take  the  common  gray  squirrel,  for  example.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  graceful  of  our  native  mammals. 
It  is  practically  harmless,  and  as  soon  as  it  learns  that  it  is  pro- 
tected, it  becomes  so  tame  as  to  be  a  delightful  companion  on  the 
farm.  Thousands  of  American  farmers  would  fight,  were  it 
necessary,  to  save  their  squirrels  from  slaughter.  Except  the 
red  squirrel,  all  tree  squirrels  should  be  protected,  both  by 
public  sentiment  and  by  law. 

Excepting  the  chickarees,  the  squirrels  which  live  in  the 
tree-tops  are  considerably  larger  than  those  of  other  groups, 
and  their  tails  are  much  longer.  Their  characteristic  colors 
are  gray,  rusty  brown,  yellow,  and  black,  and  as  a  rule  they 
are  devoid  of  spots  or  stripes.  They  are  very  strong  and 
active  climbers,  and  keen  of  eye  and  ear. 

THE  GRAY  SQUIRREL*  is  chosen  as  the  leading  type  be- 
cause it  represents  an  average  size,  the  most  frequent  color, 
and  is  widely  distributed.  This  is  the  most  prominent  squir- 
rel of  southern  Canada,  New  England,  and  the  eastern  and 
southern  states,  southward  to  Florida.  It  ranges  westward 
to  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  Texas.  Above,  its  color  is  clean 
iron-gray,  which  in  Southern  specimens  is  mixed  with  dull 
yellow.  The  lower  surface  is  white,  varying  to  yellowish 
brown.  Usually  it  nests  in  hollow  trees,  but  when  crowded 
for  room  builds  an  open  nest  of  green  leaves,  or  strippings  of 
cedar  bark  made  into  a  round  ball.  The  young  are  usually 
five  in  number. 

1  Sci-u'rus  car-o-li-nen'sis. 


THE   GRAY  SQUIRREL 


185 


The  Gray  Squirrel  frequently  consents  to  live  in  city 
parks,  and  becomes  quite  tame.  It  spends  much  of  its 
time  upon  the  ground,  searching  for  nuts,  roots,  or  any- 


SOUTHERN   FOX   SQUIRREL. 

thing  which  can  be  eaten.  A  very  large  specimen  meas- 
ures 9J^+8J^  inches.  Northern  specimens  are  larger  and 
have  longer  and  finer  fur  than  those  of  the  southern 
states. 


186  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

THE  CALIFORNIA  GRAY  SQUIRREL*  is  the  Pacific  coast 
counterpart  of  the  Eastern  gray  squirrel,  except  that  it  is 
larger,  and  its  colors  are  brighter.  Its  color  above  is  bluish 
gray  and  black,  and  underneath  it  is  pure  white.  It  is  the 
largest  squirrel  in  the  far  West,  its  maximum  length  being 
12  +  10  inches.  Its  home  extends  f^om  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington to  southern  California,  and  it  is  in  every  way  a  worthy 
product  of  that  fertile  and  healthful  region. 

THE  Fox  SQUIRRELS. — We  have  now  reached  two  im- 
portant species,  to  which  the  reader  must  give  close  atten- 
tion in  order  to  avoid  confusing  them  with  each  other,  and 
with  the  gray  squirrel.  The  Southern  species  will  be  pre- 
sented first,  because  it  has  two  points  by  which  it  can  be 
recognized  at  a  glance. 

THE  SOUTHERN  Fox  SQUIRREL*  is  the  only  squirrel  in 
America  which  has  a  pure  white  nose  and  white  ears.  No  mat- 
ter how  much  the  remainder  of  the  animal  may  vary  in  color 
from  the  standard,  in  adult  specimens  the  white  nose  and 
ears  are  constant.  Typical  specimens  of  this  species  are  col- 
ored as  follows:  top  of  head,  black;  upper  surface,  blackish 
brown;  lower  surface,  lighter  brown;  tail,  dark  brown,  mar- 
gined with  black. 

Variations  occur,  of  every  shade  from  the  above  to  jet 
black  all  over  the  body,  head,  and  tail;  but  the  ears  and  nose 
still  are  white. 

This  animal  measures  13  +  12  inches.  Its  home  is  east 
of  the  Alleghanies  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  and  westward 
along  the  Gulf  coast  to  Louisiana.  On  the  map  its  range 

1  Sci-u'rus  gris'e-us.  2  Sci-u'rus  ni'ger. 


THE  NORTHERN  FOX  SQUIRREL  187 

looks    like    an    arm    bent    around    the    range   of    the    next 
species. 

THE  NORTHERN  Fox  SQUIRREL1,  or  CAT  SQUIRREL,  is 
smaller  than  the  Southern  species  (12+11  inches),  but  very 
much  like  it  in  color,  save  that  its  nose  and  ears  never  are 
white.  The  standard  color  is  rusty -brown,  washed  with  black 
on  the  upper  surface,  and  bright  brown  underneath. 

VARIATIONS. — This  squirrel  is  the  most  variable  in  color 
of  all  our  species,  and  in  fifty  specimens  it  may  be  difficult, 
or  even  impossible,  to  find  two  exactly  alike.  Often  it  has  a 
beautiful  gray  coat,  and  looks  like  a  genuine  gray  squirrel 
with  a  browrn  back  and  head.  Often  it  is  dark  gray  above, 
and  black  on  the  legs  and  under-surface, — a  strange  combina- 
tion of  colors, — and  occasionally  a  pure-white  specimen  is 
found. 

This  species  inhabits  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  the  Alle- 
ghanies  to  Arkansas,  western  Iowa,  and  northward  to  Michi- 
gan and  New  York.  In  captivity  it  seems  to  be  more  hardy 
in  winter  than  the  gray  squirrel.  In  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park  it  blithely  runs  about  in  the  snow  when  the  latter  takes 
pains  to  avoid  it.  Often  the  Northern  Fox  Squirrel  will  be 
out  when  none  of  the  other  occupants  of  the  rodents'  cages 
are  visible.  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  the  Fox  Squirrels 
are  not  as  nimble  on  foot,  or  as  active  and  daring  in  the  tree- 
tops,  as  the  gray  squirrels. 

THE  RED  SQUIRREL,  or  CHICKAREE,2  represents  a  large 
group  of  species  containing  the  smaller  of  the  tree  squirrels. 
Its  length  is  7% +5^4  inches,  weight  11A  ounces.  What  it 

1  Sci-u'rus  lu-do-vi-ci-an'us.  2  Sci-u'rus  hud-son' i-cus. 


188  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

lacks  in  size  it  makes  up  in  courage  and  activity.  In  New 
York  and  New  England  it  often  drives  all  the  gray  squirrels 
out  of  any  grove  which  they  have  undertaken  to  inhabit 
as  tenants  in  common.  Many  observers  believe  the  habits 
of  the  Red  Squirrel  to  be  so  bad  that  the  species  deserves 
to  be  exterminated;  but  to  this  we  aje  not  prepared  to  agree. 
The  complete  destruction  of  any  species  of  mammal  or  bird 
is  a  doubtful  experiment,  and  never  should  be  entered  upon 
without  most  careful  investigation. 

In  its  normal  colors,  this  little  animal  is  readily  recognized 
by  its  brown  upper  surface  and  outer  surface  of  its  legs,  and 
its  white  under-parts.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  it  undergoes  important  seasonal  changes  in  pelage,— 
from  winter  coat  to  summer  coat,  and  the  reverse, — and  some- 
times its  standard  colors  are  greatly  changed. 

Its  legs  are  long  and  thin  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its 
body,  and  its  form  is  not  as  graceful  as  that  of  the  gray  or 
fox  squirrels.  It  is  readily  recognized  by  its  markings,  and 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  smallest  of  our  northern  tree  squirrels. 

Three  species  and  eighteen  subspecies  of  Red  Squirrels  are 
recognized,  and  their  combined  ranges  cover  about  two-thirds 
of  North  America,  from  Alaska  and  Labrador  to  North  Caro- 
lina and  southern  Arizona. 

In  California  and  Oregon  this  group  is  represented  by  the 
sprightly  and  interesting  DOUGLAS  SQUIRREL,*  showing  a 
mixture  of  colors, — dark  gray,  yellowish,  and  black.  This  is 
the  most  familiar  squirrel  of  the  great  coast  forests,  in  which 
it  uses  the  sides  of  the  giant  spruces  and  redwoods  as  play- 

1  Sci-u'rus  doug'las-i. 


TROPICAL  SQUIRRELS 


189 


grounds.  In  Colorado  and  Utah  occurs  the  third  full  species, 
known  as  FREMONT'S  SQUIRREL,*  which  is  colored  *  gray,  yel- 
lowish brown,  and  white,  much  mixed. 

Of  the  forty-three  species  and  races  of  squirrels  inhabit- 
ing Mexico  and  Central  America,  the  most  conspicuous  is 


EASTERN  RED   SQUIRREL. 

the  RED-BELLIED  SQUIRREL.2  Its  upper  surface  is  pale  griz- 
zled-gray, and  its  under-parts  bright  rusty-red.  It  inhabits 
the  forests  of  eastern  Mexico,  ascending  the  high  mountains 
to  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet. 

The  largest  squirrel  in  the  world  is  the  great  MALABAR 
SQUIRREL3  of  southwestern  India,  which  is  yellowish  brown 
above,  reddish  brown  or  black  below,  and  measures,  head  and 
body,  17  inches,  tail,  14M  inches,  and  it  weighs  43^  pounds. 

1  Sci-u'rusfre-mont'i.  2  Sci-u'rus  ery-thro-gas'ter. 

3  Sci-u'rus  mal-a-bar'i-cus. 


190  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

The  most  beautiful  squirrel  in  the  world  is  PREVOST'S 
SQUIRREL1  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  a  species  about  the  size 
of  a  small  gray  squirrel.  Its  colors  form  a  beautiful  pattern 
of  gray,  brown,  black,  white,  and  buff. 

Rock  Squirrels,  or  Chipmunks 

Next  below  the  tree  squirrels  comes  a  large  group  of  small 
squirrels  which  live  on  the  ground,  preferably  amongst  rocks, 
in  which  they  find  refuge  from  their  enemies.  In  the  absence 
of  rocks,  they  live  along  fences,  where  any  exist;  but  their 
favorite  nesting  places  are  in  hollow  trees  which  can  be  en- 
tered directly  from  the  ground. 

These  little  creatures  are  about  one-third  the  size  of  large 
tree  squirrels,  and  inasmuch  as  their  small  size  renders  them 
secure  from  the  deadly  attentions  of  man,  they  have  become 
the  most  tame  and  confiding  of  all  the  wild  mammals  of  civ- 
ilization. They  are  graceful  in  form,  beautiful  in  color 
markings,  and  exceedingly  pert  and  quick  in  their  movements. 
When  fully  protected,  as  they  are  in  some  public  parks,  they 
become  so  tame  and  confiding  that  they  dart  about  on  the 
walks  in  search  of  food,  and  often  allow  persons  to  pass  within 
three  feet  of  them. 

For  convenience  and  clearness,  we  shall  designate  all  the 
chipmunks  as  ROCK  SQUIRRELS,  because  of  their  well-known 
preference  for  rocks,  whenever  any  are  available.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  call  these  animals  "ground  squirrels."  That 
name  does  not  properly  apply  to  them,  but  belongs  to  the 
next  group. 

1  Sci-u'rus  pre-vost'i. 


ROCK  SQUIRRELS,   OR  CHIPMUNKS 


191 


THE  EASTERN  CHIPMUNK*  is  widely  known,  and  will  serve 
admirably  as  the  key  to  the  group.  When  you  walk  in  the 
country,  almost  anywhere  in  the  eastern  states,  this  pretty 
little  creature  darts  in  front  of  you  like  a  flash  of  brown 


:..    < 
EASTERN   CHIPMUNK. 


light,  and  says  "Chip,  chip,  chip,  chip!"  most  gleefully.  If 
you  stop  to  observe  him,  he  pauses  and  looks  at  you  very  in- 
tently, wide-eyed  and  with  ears  erect,  and,  save  for  the  quick 
heaving  of  his  tiny  sides,  remains  as  motionless  as  a  stuffed 
squirrel. 

To  him  every  fence  is  a  fortress.     Whether  it  be  of  stone 

1  Tam'i-as  stri-a'tus. 


192  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

or  wood,  the  Chipmunk  knows  its  best  runs  when  danger 
threatens,  and  carries  in  his  active  little  brain  a  complete 
check-list  of  burrows  and  hiding-places.  When  pursued  by 
dog,  boy,  or  wild  animal,  he  darts  swiftly  along  the  top  or 
the  lower  rails  of  his  stockade,  until  he  reaches  a  satisfactory 
hiding-place,  when  a  flash  of  brown  ^fur  shoots  into  it,  and 
he  is  seen  no  more. 

When  hard  pressed,  Chipmunks  frequently  climb  tree- 
trunks  up  to  the  lower  branches,  but  such  situations  are  very 
dangerous  for  them,  because  they  are  so  seriously  exposed  to 
attack.  Next  to  the  birds  of  prey,  the  weasel,  mink  and  fox 
are  their  worst  enemies.  The  weasel  is  the  worst  of  all,  be- 
cause it  follows  them  into  the  remotest  recesses  of  their  bur- 
rows, and  kills  every  inhabitant  without  mercy. 

Although  the  Chipmunk  burrows  in  the  ground  below  the 
frost  line,  and  has  roomy  cheek-pouches  in  which  it  carries 
astonishingly  large  quantities  of  grain  and  small  nuts,  it  is 
more  nearly  related  to  the  tree  squirrels  than  to  the  true 
ground  squirrels.  In  the  autumn  it  stores  in  its  burrow  a 
quantity  of  grain  or  nuts,  whichever  is  most  abundant, — a 
habit  which  has  suggested  its  generic  name,  Tamias,  meaning 
a  steward.  It  does  not  become  dormant,  but  on  the  warm, 
sunny  days  of  winter,  when  the  rocks  are  free  from  snow,  it 
hastens  above  ground  to  enjoy  the  light  and  warmth. 

The  length  of  an  Eastern  Chipmunk  is  6^+4M  inches. 
Its  ground-color  is  bright  reddish  brown  above,  light  under- 
neath, and  along  each  side  runs  a  conspicuous  yellow-brown 
stripe  between  two  black  stripes.  A  black  stripe  runs  from 
the  head  backward  along  the  centre  of  the  back,  almost  to 


THE   CALIFORNIA  CHIPMUNK  193 

the  tail.  The  home  of  this  animal  extends  from  southern 
Canada  and  New  York  to  Georgia  and  Louisiana,  and  west- 
ward to  Iowa. 

There  are  eighteen  full  species  of  Chipmunks,  several  of 
which  are  very  much  alike,  distributed  throughout  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  United  States.  The  greater  number  are 
marked  by  two  or  more  black  lines  extending  along  the  side, 
frequently  alternating  with  lines  of  a  yellowish-gray  color. 

It  is  impossible  to  mention  even  the  majority  of  these 
species  without  risk  of  confusing  the  reader,  but  it  is  desir- 
able to  note  a  few  important  and  strongly  marked  types  in- 
habiting widely  separated  localities  in  the  United  States. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  CHIPMUNK*  is  a  merry-hearted  little  elf, 
particularly  pert  and  beautiful.  Its  high,  sharp-pointed  ears 
and  harlequin  stripes  of  white  give  it  a  very  roguish  and 
saucy  look.  To  judge  by  the  lively  actions  of  this  little 
creature,  it  seems  to  regard  life  as  a  long  play-spell.  There 
are  many  in  the  Zoological  Park,  and  in  some  respects  they 
are  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  our  burrowing  rodents.  Only 
the  severest  weather  drives  them  into  their  burrows,  and  in 
the  dead  of  winter,  when  a  thick  blanket  of  snow  keeps  all 
other  animals  of  the  Burrowing  Rodents'  Quarters  snug  under 
ground,  the  first  hour  of  clear  sunshine  will  see  half  a  dozen 
of  the  California  Chipmunks  above  ground,  and  sunning  them- 
selves on  their  logs.  Having  an  abundance  of  room,  they 
enjoy  their  life  in  the  Park,  and  are  much  interested  in  visitors 
who  notice  them. 

This  species  could  easily  and  safely  be  introduced  in  any 

1  Eu'tam-i-as  spe-ci-o'sus. 


194 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


region  suitable  for  it.  Its  home  is  in  the  San  Bernardino 
and  San  Jacinto  Mountains,  California,  but  the  limits  of  its 
range  are  yet  to  be  defined.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  species 
of  its  genus,  its  total  length  being  6+3  inches. 


Photo,  by  E.  D.  Warren. 

SAY'S   SPERMOPHILE. 
(Callospermophilus  lateralis.) 


WESTERN   CHIPMUNK. 

(Eutamias  quadrivittatus.) 


THE  ANTELOPE  SQUIRREL*  is  readily  recognized  by  the 
broad  and  conspicuous  band  of  white,  which  extends  along 
the  middle  of  the  side,  and  its  pale-buff  color.  It  has  the 
pale  colors  of  a  desert  animal.  It  is  found  in  the  desert  re- 
gions of  the  Southwest  from  western  Texas  to  southern  Cal- 
ifornia, and  northward  to  Nevada  and  Utah. 

It  is  larger  than  the  Eastern  species,  and  is  strikingly  dif- 
ferent in  appearance  from  all  other  chipmunks. 

1  Am-mo-sper-moph'i-lus  leu-cu'rus. 


BURROWING  SQUIRRELS  195 

Ground  Squirrels 

We  have  now  reached  a  large  group  of  burrowing  squirrels 
which  to  the  farmers  west  of  the  Mississippi  are  of  very  seri- 
ous importance,  on  account  of  the  grain  they  destroy.  All 
these  animals  may  be  known  under  the  name  of  Sper'mo- 
philes.  The  word  Spermophile  means  "seed-lover";  and  as 
this  very  appropriate  general  term  implies,  the  animals  which 
bear  it  feed  chiefly  upon  seeds  or  grain. 

No  ground  squirrel,  or  spermophile,  ever  should  be  called 
a  "gopher,"  as  is  frequently  done  in  the  Dakotas  and  Minne- 
sota. The  latter  name  should  be  reserved  for  the  clumsy, 
burrowing  pocket  gophers,  of  the  genera  Geomys  and  Thomo- 
mys. 

Ground  squirrels  live  by  preference  on  prairies,  and  burrow 
deeply  in  the  ground.  They  seldom  frequent  rocks,  and 
seldom  climb  trees.  They  are  essentially  dwellers  in  open 
country,  where  they  can  range  freely,  and  behold  a  goodly 
portion  of  the  world  about  them.  Even  fields  of  standing 
grain  are  distasteful  to  them,  and  they  move  to  the  open 
country  around  their  borders. 

Of  spermophiles  north  of  Mexico  there  are  thirty-one  full 
species  and  forty-two  subspecies,  or  races.  Going  westward, 
they  are  first  found  in  western  Indiana  and  Michigan,  from 
which  they  spread  northwest  and  southwest,  throughout  the 
whole  western  half  of  the  United  States,  save  the  timbered 
areas.  They  also  range  into  Mexico,  Canada,  and  Alaska. 
They  are  at  home  on  the  rich,  rolling  prairies  of  the  Dakotas, 
the  level,  floor-like  plains  of  Nebraska,  the  alkali  flats  of 


196  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

Utah,  the  hot  deserts  of  Arizona  and  the  dry  valleys  and 
mountain  regions  of  California.  They  seem  to  be  most 
numerous  in  California  and  the  Dakotas,  where  they  do 
much  damage  to  crops. 

All  the  ground  squirrels  have  cheek-pouches,  dig  deep 
burrows  (unless  the  earth  is  too  rqcky),  store  quantities  of 
grain'  in  the  autumn  for  winter  food,  and  in  cold  latitudes 
live  all  winter  in  their  burrows.  If  forced  to  do  so,  they 
will  live  amongst  rocks,  and  it  is  surprising  to  note  how 
they  can  live  in  situations  both  high  and  low,  dry  and  wet. 
Their  favorite  food  is  grain,  seeds  of  every  description, 
green  grass,  and  hay,  and  their  worst  habit  is  digging  up 
seed  grain. 

Some  species  eat  quantities  of  destructive  insects,  such 
as  grasshoppers,  beetles,  cut-worms  and  crickets,  and  in  this 
way  partly  compensate  the  farmer  for  the  grain  they  devour. 
In  fact,  from  all  observations  made  thus  far  it  seems  that  in 
the  insect  season,  insects  form  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  daily  food  supply  of  these  industrious  little  animals.  Not 
only  do  they  eat  all  kinds  of  ground  insects,  but  they  also 
devour  mice  and  almost  any  other  flesh  that  comes  within 
their  reach,  particularly  dry  meat  adhering  to  the  bones  of 
large  animals  which  have  died  near  their  holes. 

Ground  squirrels  are  prolific,  and  bring  forth  from  seven 
to  ten  young  in  each  litter.  Their  enemies  are  coyotes,  foxes, 
badgers,  skunks,  hawks,  and  owls. 

The  spermophiles  of  North  America  are  so  wide-spread, 
so  numerous  and  so  important  that  it  is  necessary  that  two 
or  three  of  the  leading  species  should  be  specially  noticed. 


A   STRANGELY   MARKED   ANIMAL 


197 


THIRTEEN-LINED  SPERMOPHILE. 


THE  THIRTEEN-LINED,  or  LEOPARD  SPERMOPHILE,1  is  the 
most  familiar  and  widely  distributed  species,  and  although 
one  of  the  smallest,  it  is  also  the  most  strangely  marked. 
Nature  was  in  a  sportive  mood  when  she  decorated  the  back 
and  sides  of  this  little  creature  with  seven  broad  stripes  of 
dark  brown,  then  laid  between  them  six  narrow  stripes  of 
pale  yellow,  and  finally 
marked  each  of  the  seven 
brown  stripes  with  a  row 
of  large,  pale-yellow 
spots.  The  yellow  spots 
on  the  brown  lines  are 
the  first  feature  of  the 
color  scheme  to  catch  the 
eye,  and  they  distinguish 

this  animal  almost  as  far  as  it  can  be  seen.     Its  under-parts 
are  pale  yellow,  and  its  size  is  6^+3Ji  inches. 

Do  not  call  this  animal  the  "Striped"  Spermophile,  be- 
cause that  name  would  apply  to  several  other  species,  and 
be  worthless;  and  do  not  call  it  the  "Striped  Gopher,"  be- 
cause it  is  not  a  "gopher"  of  any  kind. 

The  Thirteen-Lined  Spermophile  inhabits  about  one-third 
of  the  United  States,  extending  from  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana, 
southwestward  to  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  and  northwestward  to 
the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan.  Its  western  limit  is  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  nowhere  does  it  live  in  timbered  re- 
gions, being  strictly  a  prairie  animal. 

Its  burrow  is  a  hole  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  which 

1  Ci-tel'lus  tri-de'cem-lin-e-a'tus. 


198  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

descends  quite  steeply  into  the  earth  until  it  passes  below  the 
frost-line  (two  to  three  feet),  after  which  it  runs  off  in  a  more 
or  less  horizontal  course  for  ten  or  fifteen  feet  farther.  If 
the  burrow  is  an  old  one  and  much  used,  it  is  a  long  and 
difficult  task  to  dig  to  the  end  of  it,  and  few  boys  undertake 
it  more  than  once. 

As  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  burrowing  rodents  of  cold 
latitudes,  nature  has  so  adjusted  the  life  of  this  animal  that 
it  survives  the  long  and  dreary  winter  in  the  strange,  half- 
dead  condition  called  hibernation.  To  make  this  possible, 
the  young  are  born  early  in  the  year  and  mature  early,  and 
during  summer  and  autumn  take  on  a  great  quantity  of  fat. 
At  the  approach  of  winter,  it  curls  up  in  its  burrow  for  a  sleep 
of  from  three  to  four  months'  duration. 

By  the  investigations  of  Dr.  P.  R.  Hoy,  it  has  been  dis- 
covered that  in  the  case  of  the  Thirteen-Lined  Spermophile, 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  reduced  from  twro  hundred  to  only 
four  feeble  beats  per  minute,  the  temperature  is  reduced 
from  105°  to  58°,  and  there  is  no  visible  breathing.  The  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  was  so  feeble  that  when  a  limb  was 
amputated,  only  a  few  drops  of  blood  slowly  oozed  from  the 
wound,  while  the  nerves  showed  no  sensitiveness.  In  fact, 
the  animal  was  in  a  condition  of  suspended  animation,  as 
if  under  the  influence  of  chloroform.  In  the  northern  por- 
tions of  its  range,  this  spermophile  hibernates  from  about 
November  20  to  April  1. 

FRANKLIN'S  SPERMOPHILE1  looks  very  much  like  a  slender- 
bodied,  short-tailed  tree  squirrel;  and  very  often  it  is  called 

1  Ci-tel'lus  frank'lin-i. 


FRANKLIN'S  SPERMOPHILE  199 

the  Gray  Ground  Squirrel.  It  should  not,  however,  be  called 
the  Gray  Gopher,  or  Scrub  Gopher,  for  both  these  names  are 
erroneous.  It  is  best  to  call  each  animal  by  a  name  peculiarly 
its  own,  even  though  the  beginning  of  correct  naming  involves 
a  little  trouble. 

On  an  open  prairie,  especially  in  spring  when  the  young 
grass  is  short,  this  spermophile  is  a  conspicuous  animal,  and 
strongly  resembles  the  gray  squirrel  of  the  East.  Its  upper 
surface  is  of  a  yellowish-gray  color  marked  with  fine,  wavy, 
crosswise  lines  of  black  or  brown.  Its  under  surface  is  dis- 
tinctly gray,  and  its  hair  is  coarse  and  stiff.  In  size  it  is 
about  9+5  inches.  Its  home  is  the  central  portion  of  the 
range  of  the  thirteen-lined  spermophile.  The  western  limit 
follows  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  arid  plains  northward 
from  southeastern  Kansas  to  the  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and 
thence  southeastward  to  southern  Wisconsin,  eastern  Illinois, 
and  northern  Missouri. 

Whenever  numerous  in  farming  regions,  these  animals  are 
very  troublesome,  not  only  in  destroying  grain  in  the  ground 
and  in  the  stack,  but  also  in  destroying  young  chickens. 
They  are  very  venturesome  in  locating  permanently  near 
farmhouses  and  barns,  and  sometimes  they  are  very  destruc- 
tive in  gardens.  As  an  offset  to  the  valuable  farm  products 
destroyed  by  these  creatures,  Franklin's  Spermophile  destroys 
great  numbers  of  noxious  insects,  such  as  grasshoppers,  cater- 
pillars, beetles  and  also  field  mice.  In  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  twenty -nine  stomachs  were  examined 
with  the  following  result:  animal  matter  present,  30.3  per 
cent.;  vegetable,  68.5  per  cent.;  and  undetermined,  1.2  per 


200 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


cent.  Out  of  the  whole  twenty-nine  stomachs  examined, 
twenty-six  contained  the  remains  of  insects!  Thus  the  grain 
consumed  by  this  animal  is  at  least  partially  paid  for  by  the 
destruction  of  insects  that  prey  upon  crops;  but  farmers 
everywhere  are  diligent  in  destroying  it  with  poisoned  wheat 
placed  in  its  burrow. 

RICHARDSON'S  SPERMOPHILE,1  of  northern  Montana,  North 
Dakota  and  the  region  immediately  northward  as  far  as  the 

Saskatchewan,  has  a  short 
body,  short  legs,  and  a  short 
tail,  and  looks  very  much 
like  a  thin  prairie-4 'dog."  In 
color  it  is  like  the  preceding 
species,  except  that  its  tail  is 
darker;  but  in  size  it  is  a 
trifle  smaller  (9+3  inches). 
Its  habits  are  practically 
identical  with  those  of  Frank- 
lin's Spermophile,  but  if  there  is  any  difference,  it  is  more 
destructive  to  grain  than  is  the  latter,  and  consumes  less  in- 
sect food.  x  It  is  fortunate  that  this  species  inhabits  so  small 
an  area  of  the  wheat  country  of  the  Northwest. 

Marmots 

The  group  of  marmots  consists  of  burrowing  rodents  which 
in  structure  are  quite  squirrel-like,  but  are  distinguished  by 
their  large  size  and  general  heaviness  of  body.  As  befits 
their  portliness  of  form,  they  are  not  active  and  lively,  like 

1  Ci-tel'lus  rich'ard-son-i. 


RICHARDSON'S  SPERMOPHILE. 


THE  PRAIRIE-" DOGS*'  201 

squirrels,  but  live  quietly  and  unobtrusively.  By  reason  of 
the  good  sense  they  manifest  in  keeping  out  of  mischief, 
some  of  them  are  tolerated  in  farming  communities  when 
more  aggressive  rodents  would  be  exterminated. 

The  woodchuck  is  our  most  perfect  type  of  marmot, 
from  which  the  prairie-"  dog,"  or  prairie  marmot,  is  slightly 
removed  by  the  possession  of  a  large  and  perfect  fifth  claw. 
It  is  desirable,  however,  that  the  latter  should  be  included 
in  the  group  of  marmots. 

The  Prairie-" Dogs" 

THE  PRAIRIE-" Doc"1  is  a  plump  and  sociable  little  ro- 
dent, not  a  carnivore, — well  known  to  every  dweller  in  the 
plains  region  of  the  great  West,  and  to  every  transcontinental 
traveller.  His  explosive,  yapping  cry  is  the  most  cheerful 
sound  of  the  western  plains.  He  hates  solitude,  and  always 
lives  in  colonies  of  from  40  to  1,000  individuals.  Unlike  most 
other  burrowing  rodents,  the  darkness  and  silence  of  a  bur- 
row easily  pall  upon  his  vivacious  nature;  therefore  he  spends 
the  greater  portion  of  his  waking  hours  above  ground,  visiting 
his  neighbors,  and  observing  what  goes  on  in  his  small  world. 

When  no  enemies  are  in  sight,  he  and  his  fellow-towns- 
men roam  about  for  short  distances  from  their  homes,  and 
feed  upon  grass  blades  and  stems.  At  the  approach  of  an 
enemy, — man,  coyote,  badger,  fox,  gray  wolf,  eagle,  or  hawk, 
—the  sentry  cries  out  sharply,  "Skip!  Skip!  Skip!" 

Instantly  every  "Dog"  halts,  motionless  and  alert.  If 
the  sentry  again  cries  "Skip!"  each  "Dog"  scurries  to  his 

1  Cy-no'mys  lu-do-vi-ci-an'us. 


202  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

hole  and  poises  himself  over  its  wide  mouth,  in  readiness  for 
a  dive  to  subterranean  safety.  If  the  danger  approaches  quite 
near,  the  alarm  cry  resounds  shrilly  from  all  sides,  stubby 
tails  jerk  nervously  as  if  worked  by  wires,  and  down  goes 
every  Prairie-4 *  Dog." 

Just  how  far  down  the  burrows  go,  it  is  difficult  to  say, 
for  they  probably  vary  greatly  in  depth.  The  mouth  of  a 
burrow  is  a  miniature  model  of  a  volcano, — a  conical  mound 
of  bare  earth,  a  foot  high  and  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter, 
with  a  four-inch  crater  in  the  centre,  going  down  at  a  slight 
angle.  The  crater  prevents  water  from  running  into  the 
burrow. 

In  making  a  crater  the  "Dogs"  press  the  earth  into  shape 
on  the  inside  with  their  noses.  .  Once  when  an  inmate  of  the 
Prairie-" Dog"  village  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park  in- 
curred the  hostility  of  four  of  his  mates,  they  drove  him  into 
his  burrow,  filled  up  the  mouth  of  it  with  moist  earth,  and 
with  their  noses  tamped  it  down  quite  hard,  the  prisoner 
scolding  vigorously  meanwhile. 

Prairie-' 'Dogs"  are  easily  introduced  into  almost  any  open 
country  where  the  ground  is  dry,  but  they  are  very  difficult 
to  exterminate.  Under  fair  conditions  they  breed  readily  in 
captivity,  and  usually  produce  four  young  at  a  birth.  In 
1899,  a  free  colony  was  established  in  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park,  in  the  Antelope  Range,  where  it  existed  for  two  years, 
and  its  saucy  members  attracted  far  more  attention  than 
those  confined  in  the  fenced  village.  Knowing  that  guns  and 
dogs  are  not  allowed  in  the  park,  they  often  permitted  visitors 
to  pass  within  six  feet  of  them.  But  it  proved  impossible  to 


AN  ANIMAL  THAT  LIVES  WITHOUT  DRINKING     203 

keep  those  industrious  diggers  from  spreading  far  beyond  the 
limits  fixed  for  them  and  seriously  damaging  walks  and  lawns, 
so  they  were  finally  caught  by  placing  sand  in  boxes  over  their 


PRAIRIE-"  DOGS." 


burrows,  and  transferred  to  the  village,  whose  walls  of  solid 
masonry  go  down  to  bed-rock. 

Some  plainsmen  claim  that  these  interesting  little  crea- 
tures are  able  to  locate  their  towns  away  from  streams  be- 
cause they  burrow  down  until  they  strike  water,  but  Dr. 
Merriam  points  out  the  fact  that  in  some  regions  they  live 
where  the  nearest  veins  of  artesian-well  water  are  1,000  feet 
below  the  surface.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  can  live  without 
drinking. 


204  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

The  Prairie-' 'Dog"  is  at  home — where  not  exterminated 
by  poisoned  wheat  put  into  his  burrow — from  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  and  Arizona  northward  to  the  Canadian  boundary, 
and  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Utah 
and  Colorado.  It  is  most  abundant  in  Montana,  Wyoming 
and  western  Kansas.  One  of  the  largest  Prairie-" Dog"  towns 
yet  reported  begins  in  Trego  County,  Kansas,  five  miles  west 
of  the  one-hundredth  meridian,  and  extends  along  the  diyide 
north  of  the  Smoky  Hill  River,  practically  without  a  break, 
to  Colorado,  a  total  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles. 
This  town  varies  in  width  from  half  a  mile  to  five  miles,  and 
on  the  top  of  the  divide  the  nearest  water  is  believed  to  be 
350  feet  below  the  surface.  (Arthur  B.  Baker.) 

It  is  reported  that  because  of  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
wolves  and  foxes,  the  enormous  increase  of  Prairie-' ' Dogs" 
in  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Texas  and  Colorado  has  become  a 
genuine  scourge  to  farmers  and  cattlemen.  The  number  of 
"Dogs"  in  that  region  is  now  estimated  at  several  millions, 
and  a  general  campaign  against  them  has  been  begun.  The 
method  employed  for  their  destruction  is  a  spoonful  of  poi- 
soned wheat  placed  in  the  mouth  of  each  burrow.  Beyond 
doubt,  this  will  soon  reduce  their  numbers  to  reasonable 
limits. 

When  he  is  not  too  numerous,  I  am  the  friend  of  the 
Prairie-" Dog."  He  is  as  bright  and  cheerful  as  the  day  is 
long,  and  he  enlivens  many  a  dreary  landscape,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  often  changes  fine,  grass-covered  cattle-ranges 
into  dreary  wastes,  and  causes  great  losses  to  cattle  owners. 
I  hope,  however,  that  he  will  be  tolerated  at  least  to  the 


HABITS  OF  PRAIRIE-" DOGS"  205 

extent  that  systematic  destruction  will  stop  short  of  exter- 
mination. 

It  is  not  true  that  the  Prairie-"  Dog "  lives  in  peace  and 
harmony  in  the  same  burrow  with  the  rattlesnake  and  bur- 
rowing owl.  The  snakes  would  make  short  work  of  the 
young  Prairie-' 'Dogs,"  and  the  latter  would  quickly  kill  the 
owl!  It  is  safe  to  surmise  that  when  a  deadly  and  quarrel- 
some rattler  invades  the  home  of  a  Prairie-' 'Dog"  family, 
the  latter  speedily  seeks  a  home  elsewhere.  The  burrowing 
owl  is  in  the  habit  of  taking  refuge  in  abandoned  burrows, 
and  nesting  in  them,  to  save  the  labor  of  digging  a  burrow 
for  itself.  In  the  Philadelphia  Zoological  Garden  Mr.  A.  E. 
Brown  once  tried  the  experiment  of  associating  burrowing 
owls  and  Prairie-"  Dogs."  The  owls  were  immediately  killed 
and  torn  to  pieces  by  the  "Dogs." 

A  Prairie-'6 Dog"  Burrow 

Once  a  Prairie-"  Dog "  burrow  was  completely  exposed 
by  digging,  and  reported  upon  in  full  in  one  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Biological  Survey.  In  the  "Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture"  for  1901,  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam 
published  a  valuable  paper  on  "The  Prairie-Dog  of  the  Great 
Plains,"  which  contained  the  following  illustrated  description: 
'The  holes  go  down  for  some  distance  at  a  very  steep 
angle  and  then  turn  at  nearly  a  right  angle  and  continue 
horizontally,  rising  somewhat  toward  the  end.  The  nests 
are  in  side  chambers  connecting  with  the  horizontal  part  of 
the  burrow,  and  usually,  if  not  always,  at  a  somewhat  higher 
level.  (See  H  in  figure.)  Recently,  at  Alma,  Nebraska,  W. 


206  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

H.  Osgood  dug  out  a  burrow,  of  which  he  made  a  careful 
diagram,  accompanied  by  measurements. 

"In  this  case  the  burrow  went  down  nearly  vertically  to 
a  depth  of  14H  feet  below  the  surface,  when  it  turned  abruptly 
and  became  horizontal  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  hori- 
zontal part  was  13H  feet  in  length.  .  One-third  of  the  hori- 
zontal part  (the  terminal  4  feet,  F)  and  two  old  nests  and 
passageways  (E)  were  plugged  with  black  earth  brought  in 
from  the  surface  layer,  which  was  very  different  from  the 
light-colored  clayey  earth  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
burrow  lay. 

"Four  or  five  feet  below  the  entrance  was  a  diverticulum, 
or  short  side  passage  (G),  probably  used  as  a  place  in  which 
to  turn  around  when  the  animals  come  back  to  take  a  look 
at  the  intruder  before  finally  disappearing  in  the  bottoms  of 
their  burrows.  It  is  also  used,  apparently,  as  a  resting-place 
where  they  bark  and  scold  after  retreating  from  the  mouths 
of  the  burrows.  As  elsewhere  noted,  they  are  often  heard 
barking  after  they  have  gone  in. 

'The  burrow  was  opened  the  day  after  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon had  been  used  for  destroying  the  animals,  and  the  ma- 
terial carrying  the  bisulphide  was  found  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vertical  part,  just  where  the  horizontal  part  turns  off.  Two 
dead  animals  were  found,  one  in  the  horizontal  part,  the  other 
in  the  nest,  as  indicated  by  the  letter  K  in  the  diagram. 

'The  Prairie-Dog  has  several  natural  enemies  which, 
when  not  interfered  with  by  man,  usually  serve  to  hold  its 
numbers  in  check.  The  most  inveterate  of  these  appear  to 
be  the  coyote,  badger,  black-footed  ferret,  and  rattlesnake." 


A  PRAIRIE-"DOG"  BURROW 


207 


jha/ttd,  entranca'to  burrow 


ab-cvd  15 


. 
th 


- 

fectut  Unc/th. 


V .  Unused  I wu'l  offwruontalnassaqe 

fMid  with  tarVi  etc  (  4-  fu-tlong)     * 
G .  Nidielca-cft  uiouqk-for  one  prairie  dag. 


\\.Ntttof  qraSS(lti,nch,  indiamitir  by  3 

ches  in,  height) 
d.Absorbeirtmattcr  tarrying  b 

d  '  carbon. 
\\.Positipnof  ft-azrie.do&s  cis  found  after 

use  of  bisu-lfi/iide  of  -carbon/. 
LJe/tfk  of  horizontal  ]°.ass(tq& 

" 


in- 


PRAIRIE-"DOG"  BURROW. 
From  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  "Yearbook,"  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  1901. 


208  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

THE  WOODCHUCK,  or  GROUND-"  HOG,"  1  is  tolerated  on 
the  farms  of  New  England  because  as  a  rule  he  is  wise 
enough  to  live  on  clover  and  other  grass  and  let  the  vegetable 
gardens  alone.  Occasionally,  however,  he  does  damage  in 
gardens  that  are  temptingly  near  his  woodland  haunts,  and 
invites  the  farmer's  dog  and  gun.  . 

In  the  East  he  is  the  only  representative  of  the  marmots. 
In  form  he  is  short  and  stout,  and  his  flat  head  and  beady, 
black  eyes  give  him  a  surly  look.  He  is  not  lively  and  cheer- 
ful in  his  habits,  like  a  prairie-"  dog,"  arid  it  is  seldom  that 
any  one  speaks  well  of  him.  His  favorite  home  is  a  burrow 
in  a  brushy,  gravelly  hillside  in  a  "swamp  lot,"  or  woods 
pasture,  and  while  he  likes  to  come  out  and  bask  in  the 
warm  sunshine,  he  never  ventures  far  from  his  front  door. 

In  the  autumn,  instead  of  storing  up  vegetables  for  winter, 
he  takes  on  a  quantity  of  fat,  under  his  skin.  Early  in 
November  he  blithely  goes  to  sleep  in  his  burrow,  and  does 
not  waken  until  February  2, — "Ground-Hog  day."  Then,— 
so  runs  the  popular  legend, — he  emerges  and  looks  about  him. 
If  he  sees  his  shadow,  he  again  retires  to  his  burrow,  and 
sleeps  six  weeks  longer, — which  betokens  a  cold,  wintry  spring. 

The  eastern  Woodchuck  is  a  typical  marmot,  short-legged, 
heavy-bodied,  flat-headed,  and  brownish-gray  in  color.  The 
length  of  its  head  and  body  is  14  inches,  and  of  its  tail  5 
inches.  It  inhabits  the  eastern  United  States  from  New 
York  to  Georgia,  and  westward  to  Kansas  and  South  Dakota. 

A  much  larger  species,  called  the  GRAY  MARMOT,2  or 
WHISTLER  (22+7  inches),  is  an  important  northwestern  form, 

1  Mar-mo'ta  mo'nax.  2  Mar-mo'ta  pru-in-o'sus. 


THE   GRAY  MARMOT 


209 


strongly  differentiated  by  its  light,  grizzly-gray  color,  with 
certain  dark  markings.  It  is  found  from  the  Columbia  River 
northward  to  about  63°  North  Latitude  and  eastward  to 
Hudson  Bay.  It  derives  one  of  its  names  from  the  fact 


WOODCHUCK. 

that  its  alarm  cry  consists  of  a  shrill  whistle,  which  is  re- 
peated by  the  various  members  of  the  colony  threatened 
with  danger.  Often  it  is  found  in  rocky  mountain  valleys, 
high  up,  with  the  pika  as  its  nearest  neighbor. 

THE  YELLOW-BELLIED  MARMOT,1  easily  distinguished  by 
the  bright-red  hair  on  its  under-parts,  is  a  Southern  species, 

1  Mar-mo'ta  flav'i-ven-ter. 


210  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

found  in  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas.  High 
up,  on  the  Olympic  Mountains  of  western  Washington,  is 
found  still  another  species  of  marmot,  as  large  as  the  Whistler, 
which  is  yellowish  in  summer,  and  bluish  gray  in  winter. 
This  is  called  the  OLYMPIC  MARMOT. 

Flying  Squirrels 

THE  FLYING  SQUIRREL*  is  a  very  beautiful  little  creature, 
but  its  strictly  nocturnal  habits,  and  strong  dislike  to  day- 
light, almost  rob  us  of  its  acquaintance.  This  is  to  be  re- 
gretted, because  it  is  the  only  native  tree-dwelling  quadruped 
which  has  been  provided  by  Nature  with  a  parachute,  con- 
sisting of  a  thin  fold  of  skin  stretched  between  the  fore  and 
hind  legs,  partly  to  sustain  the  animal  in  a  long  downward 
flight.  Neither  the  Flying  Squirrel  nor  the  flying  lemur  of 
the  East  Indies  can  actually  fly;  but  they  leap  from  a  tree- 
top,  go  sailing  gently  downward  and  outward,  and  when 
near  the  ground  curve  upward  and  are  carried  by  their  mo- 
mentum on  an  ascending  plane  to  the  side  of  'an  adjoining 
tree.  Anything  like  horizontal  flight  is  quite  out  of  the 
question. 

The  Flying  Squirrel  is  one  of  the  most  exquisite  little 
mammals  in  North  America.  Its  legs  are  very  delicately 
formed;  its  fur  is  as  fine  and  soft  as  silk;  and  when  at  rest 
the  edge  of  its  flying  membrane  looks  like  the  edge  of  a  lace 
ruffle.  The  head  and  body  (of  the  Eastern  species)  is  about 
5  inches  long,  and  the  tail  4  inches.  These  little  creatures 
are  quite  sociable,  and  nest  in  hollow  trees,  where  from  five 

1  Sci-u-rop'te-rus  vo'lans. 


FLYING  SQUIRRELS 

to  seven  young  are  born.  They  come  out  to  play  about  sun- 
set, and  are  as  sportive  as  schoolboys  playing  tag.  In  cap- 
tivity they  are  quite  worthless  for  exhibition,  for  in  the  day- 


THE  FLYING  SQUIRREL. 

time  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  save  a  small  and  wholly 
uninteresting  ball  of  fur. 

Three  species  (and  nine  subspecies)  have  been  described, 
and  their  range  covers  the  eastern  United  States  from  Can- 
ada to  Florida,  and  westward  to  Louisiana.  On  the  Pacific 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 

coast,  they  are  found  from  southern  California  to  Alaska, 
even  to  the  Mackenzie  River  basin,  but  they  are  not  found 
in  the  desert  regions. 

THE  SEWELLEL  FAMILY 

Aplodontidaf 

THE  SEWELLEL,1  MOUNTAIN  "BEAVEE,"  or  SHOWT'L  of 
the  Indians  is  a  strange  and  little-known  animal  of  the  North- 
west, with  which  at  least  every  person  in  that  region  should 
be  acquainted.  It  is  reddish  brown  in  upper  color  (some- 
times grayish  brown),  and  looks  like  a  tailless  woodchuck. 
It  feeds  like  a  beaver,  fights  fiercely  when  cornered,  is  sociable 
in  habit,  like  the  prairie-"  dog,"  can  climb  bushes  four  feet 
high,  and  can  burrow  and  live  comfortably  either  in  ground 
that  is  low  and  boggy,  or  high  and  dry.  Usually  it  prefers 
wet  ground!  A  large  specimen  weighs  4  pounds  and  meas- 
ures about  13  inches  in  length  of  head  and  body,  with  a  tail 
of  a  little  more  than  an  inch.  Strange  to  say,  this  once 
rare  animal  has  recently  been  discovered  inhabiting  the 
grounds  of  the  University  of  Washington,  at  Seattle. 

THE  BEAVER  FAMILY 

Castoridae 

THE  BEAVER2  easily  leads  the  mammals  of  the  world  in 
mechanical  and  engineering  skill,  and  also  in  habits  of  in- 
dustry. Being  chiefly  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  it  sleeps  by 
day,  and  after  nightfall  carries  on  its  work  unmolested.  It  is 

1  Ap-lo-don'ti-a  ru'fa.  2  Cas'tor  can-a-den'sis. 


THE  AMERICAN  BEAVER  215 

seldom  that  any  one  sees  a  live  Beaver  in  its  haunts  during 
the  middle  of  the  day,  but  it  is  possible  to  do  so  during  the 
hour  before  sunset.  In  public  zoological  gardens  and  parks, 
the  persistence  and  success  of  this  animal  in  avoiding  obser- 
vation are  very  disappointing  to  visitors  and  exasperating  to 
directors  and  keepers. 

This  is  the  largest  gnawing  animal  in  North  America.  A 
huge  specimen  caught  in  Maine,  in  1900,  weighed  a  trifle 
over  50  pounds.  A  large  one  that  once  lived  in  the  New 
York  Zoological  Park  was  31  inches  long,  had  a  tail  12  inches 
long  and  weighed  44  pounds. 

The  American  Beaver  is  still  found  in  a  few  localities, — 
but  in  very  small  numbers, — from  the  Rio  Grande  in  Texas 
throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  Cas- 
cade Mountain  regions  northward  to  the  limit  of  trees,  and 
southeastward  through  Canada  to  northern  New  England. 
The  number  now  remaining  in  Colorado  has  been  estimated 
at  one  thousand. 

From  1907  to  1909  the  average  annual  catch  of  Beaver 
in  North  America  was  about  80,000  skins,  but  in  1912  the 
largest  fur  house  in  London  handled  only  17,036.  Beaver  fur 
is  now  rarely  seen  in  the  United  States. 

The  Beaver's  efforts  are  directed  toward  its  own  preser- 
vation and  comfort.  It  builds  extensive  dams  of  mud,  grass, 
and  sticks,  in  order  to  create  ponds  in  which  it  can  hide 
from  its  enemies,  maintain  a  safe  refuge  close  by  the  wood 
on  which  it  feeds,  and  have  an  under-water  doorway  to  its 
house  or  burrow.  More  than  this,  the  pond  serves  as  a 
refrigerator,  in  the  bottom  of  which  the  animal  stores  its 


216  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

supplies  of  food-wood  for  winter  use,  when  the  surface  is 
frozen  for  a  long  period. 

Sometimes  when  food-wood  on  a  beaver  pond  becomes 
scarce,  the  animals  dig  canals  into  places  where  fresh  supplies 
can  be  cut  and  floated  down  to  the  pond.  These  canals  are 
usually  about  two  feet  wide. 

A  Beaver  is  readily  recognized  by  its  very  flat,  hairless, 
and  scaly  tail,  which  beyond  -the  hair  of  the  body  is  about 
9  inches  long  by  4  inches  wide.  The  tail  is  never  used  as  a 
trowel  in  building  dams,  but  only  as  a  propeller  in  swimming. 

Dam-building  is  done  in  two  ways.  With  his  front  feet 
the  animal  digs  up  soft  mud,  holds  the  mass  with  his  fore 
legs  against  his  breast,  and  swims  with  it  to  the  dam.  There 
he  deposits  it  where  it  is  most  needed,  and  pats  it  down  with 
his  front  feet.  To  strengthen  the  structure,  he  brings  sticks 
4  or  5  feet  long,  and  1  or  2  inches  in  diameter,  from  which 
he  has  eaten  the  bark.  These  he  usually  lays  upon  the  dam, 
crosswise  or  nearly  so,  and  fills  in  between  them  with  mud. 

When  Beavers  have  to  build  a  dam  exceeding  50  feet  in 
length,  to  flood  low  ground,  they  usually  lay  it  out  with  a 
curve  up-stream.  The  dam  built  by  the  Beavers  in  the  New 
York  Zoological  Park  is  about  40  feet  long,  and  3  feet  high, 
and  quite  sharply  curved  up-stream. 

In  most  localities  inhabited  by  Beavers,  the  banks  of  the 
streams  are  so  low  that  the  animals  cannot  burrow  into 
them,  and  consequently  they  build  houses  for  themselves. 
The  ordinary  Beaver  house  is  a  huge  pile  of  neatly  trimmed 
6-foot  poles,  with  all  spaces  between  the  sticks  plastered  full 
of  mud.  The  one  in  the  Zoological  Park  is  about  15  feet  in 


FOOD   OF  THE   BEAVER  217 

diameter,  and  5  feet  high,  with  a  central  chamber  above  high- 
water  mark,  and  its  only  entrance  is  well  under  water.  If 
a  Beaver  house  is  attacked,  the  occupants  immediately  seek 
refuge  in  deep  water. 

The  trees  which  furnish  bark  most  prized  by  the  Beaver 
as  food  are  the  poplar,  cottonwood,  willow,  birch,  elm,  box- 


SKULL  OF  BEAVER,  A  TYPICAL  RODENT. 

elder  and  aspen.     The  bark  of   the  oak,  hickory  or   ash   is 
not  eaten. 

The  Beaver's  front  teeth  (incisors)  are  very  strong  and 
sharp,  and  the  muscles  of  the  jaw  are  massive  and  powerful. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  Beaver  to  fell  a  tree  a  foot  in 
diameter  in  order  to  get  at  its  branches.  It  is  said  by  some 
observers  that  large  trees  are  made  to  fall  as  the  Beavers 
prefer  to  have  them, — toward  their  pond.  In  felling  a  tree, 
they  first  remove  the  bark  from  a  circle  a  foot  in  width, 
just  above  the  spur  roots,  standing  on  their  hind  legs  while 


218  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

they  work.  Then,  with  their  huge,  chisel-like  incisors  they 
cut  out  chips,  circling  round  the  trunk  all  the  while,  until 
only  the  heart  of  the  trunk  remains,  and  the  tree  falls. 


THE  FAMILY  OF  MICE  AND  RATS 

Muridae 

When  their  groups  and  relationships  are  fairly  under- 
stood, the  wild  mice  and  rats  will  be  found  quite  interesting. 
They  are  so  widely  distributed  it  is  very  desirable  that  coun- 
try dwellers  should  know  something  about  them,  and  appre- 
ciate their  good  points  as  well  as  their  bad  ones.  A  moder- 
ate effort,  properly  aided  and  encouraged,  will  give  any  one 
a  fair  conception  of  the  grand  divisions  of  this  great  group; 
and  there  the  general  student  can  stop,  if  he  so  elects. 

In  approaching  this  assemblage  of  North  American  mam- 
mals, the  first  thought  is  that  its  members  are  difficult  to 
deal  with.  In  some  respects  they  are,  but  they  are  by  no 
means  as  difficult  as  might  be  supposed.  Like  many  other 
new  subjects,  they  yield  to  a  little  old-fashioned  study.  It 
is  not  necessary  for  the  general  reader  to  enter  into  the 
study  of  a  large  number  of  species.  Lay  the  foundation  first 
by  becoming  acquainted  with  each  genus,  and  one  typical 
species.  Observe  the  following  injunctions: 

1.  Treat  this  bit  of  study  with  serious  attention. 

2.  Learn  first  the  names  of  the  Families  and  the  approxi- 
mate size  of  each  Family. 

3.  Next  learn  by  rote,  in  regular  order,  the  common  names 
of  the  typical  examples  given. 


THE  FAMILY  OF  MICE  AND  RATS 

4.  Learn  some  of  the  distinguishing  characters  of  each 
example. 

5.  Study  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  various  types. 

6.  Finally,  in  determining  the  name  of  a  strange  species, 
do  not  feel  that  you  must  name  it  instantly  or  be  disgraced! 
Take  time  to  think  over  it,  and  to  "look  it  up."     Snap  judg- 
ments on  small  creatures  have  a  most  annoying  habit  of  prov- 
ing to  be  wrong.     It  is  a  wise  judge  who  knows  when  to 
hand  down  a  decision. 

In  order  to  make  the  genera  of  North  American  rats  and 
mice  clear  to  the  student,  I  have  procured  from  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam,  the  highest  living  authority  on  these  creatures,  a 
fine,  perfect,  adult  specimen  of  the  best-known  (or  most 
typical)  species  of  each  genus.  Figures  of  these  skins  are 
here  reproduced  to  show  their  relative  sizes,  and  a  life-like 
illustration  of  each  of  these  types  is  also  given.  In  the  text, 
the  most  striking  distinguishing  characters  are  printed  in 
italics. 

With  these  aids  to  the  text,  it  should  be  possible  for  a 
clear-headed,  keen-eyed  student  to  refer  any  adult  North 
American  rat  or  mouse  to  its  proper  genus.  But  beware  of 
young  specimens!  Often  they  are  so  puzzling  that  Solomon 
himself  could  not  place  them  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
In  determining  the  species  of  mice  and  rats,  mammalogists 
depend  largely  upon  the  characters  of  the  teeth;  but  that  is 
a  subject  too  intricate  for  the  general  student. 

The  table  on  page  222  shows  the  various  Families  of  rats 
and  mice,  the  North  American  genera,  and  the  typical  spe- 
cies of  each.  It  is  not  necessary  for  young  students  to  mem- 


220  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

orize  the  Latin  names  of  the  genera  and  species;  but  those 
who  become  specially  interested  in  natural  history  will  very 
soon  desire  to  know  them. 

THE  MusKRAT,1  which  received  its  name  from  its  very 
pronounced  musky  odor,  is  the  largest  native  representative 
of  the  Mouse-and-Rat  Family.  It  is  readily  recognized  by 
its  flat,  hairless  tail,  carried  on  its  edge.  It  is  of  large  size, 
measuring  about  21  inches  in  length.  It  is  of  aggressive 
habit,  an  admirable  diver  and  swimmer,  an  industrious  and 
intelligent  house  builder,  and  the  only  native  rat  whose  fur 
is  valuable.  It  is  found  from  Labrador  and  Newfoundland 
to  Alaska,  and  southward  to  Arizona  and  Louisiana. 

It  is  very  shrewd  in  preserving  its  own  life,  and  even  in 
the  large  forest  parks  of  New  York  City,  it  refuses  to  be 
exterminated.  When  three  bogs  in  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park  were  dug  out  and  converted  into  ponds,  the  wild  Musk- 
rats  in  the  Bronx  River  found  them  as  soon  as  they  were 
completed,  immediately  took  possession  of  them,  and  there 
they  remained  until  forcibly  dislodged.  Being  very  destruc- 
tive to  lily  bulbs,  and  most  other  aquatic  plants,  their  pres- 
ence in  ornamental  ponds  is  very  objectionable. 

Muskrats  are  rarely,  if  ever,  found  away  from  ponds  or 
good-sized  streams.  They  are  quite  as  much  at  home  in  the 
water  as  beavers,  and  their  habits  are  strictly  aquatic.  The 
tail  furnishes  the  motive  power  for  swimming.  The  feet  are 
small  and  but  very  slightly  webbed,  and  the  body  is  com- 
pletely covered  with  soft,  brown  fur  an  inch  or  more  in  length, 
which  is  much  sought  by  furriers.  When  taken  at  the  best 

1  Fiber  zibethicus. 


MUSKRATS 

season,  plucked,  dressed,  and  dyed  a  rich  brown-black,  it  is 
sold  by  the  fur  trade  as  seal,  French  seal,  electric  seal,  Red 
River  seal,  Hudson  seal,  mink  and  sable.  The  price  of  raw 
skins  in  London  has  risen  from  15  to  90  cents.  From  1907 
to  1909  the  average  annual  catch  of  Muskrat  skins  in  North 
America  was  about  8,000,000! 

Muskrats  that  inhabit  streams  with  high  banks  do  not 
trouble  themselves  to  build  houses,  but  merely  burrow  into 
the  banks.  In  rivers  and  ponds  with  low  margins,  however, 
they  gather  coarse  grass,  reeds  and  mud,  and  build  dome- 
shaped  houses,  about  5  feet  in  diameter,  which  rise  from  2 
to  4  feet  above  the  water.  All  such  houses  are  entered 
below  the  surface  of  the  water,  so  far  down  that  ice  does 
not  close  their  doors,  and  within  there  is  a  floor  raised  well 
above  the  water,  on  which  the  inmates  eat  their  food  and 
sleep. 

When  too  many  captive  Muskrats  are  kept  in  the  same 
enclosure,  say  twelve  in  a  fenced  pool  30  feet  square,  they 
fight  viciously,  and  not  only  kill  each  other,  but  sometimes 
partly  devour  one  of  the  victims.  Although  often  disputed,  it 
is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  they  eat  flesh  on  very  slight  prov- 
ocation. They  are  very  unsatisfactory  animals  to  keep  in 
captivity,  no  matter  what  the  conditions  may  be. 

THE  HUDSON  BAY  LEMMING1  is  worthy  of  special  notice, 
because  it  is  the  most  widely  distributed  and  noteworthy  rat- 
like  animal  of  the  far  North.  It  is  strictly  a  mammal  of  the 
cold  northland,  and  like  many  other  arctic  animals,  its  win- 
ter coat  is  pure  white,  and  its  fur  is  dense  and  warm.  Among 

1  Dicrostonyx  hudsonius. 


222 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


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THE  HUDSON  BAY  LEMMING  225 

the  west  Alaskan  Eskimo,  skins  are  very  common,  and  the 
children  delight  in  using  them  for  doll  clothes. 

This   animal  is   about  the   size   of  a  large  mole,   thick- 
bodied,  short-legged,  and  sharp-nosed.     The  ears  are  extremely 


HUDSON  BAY  LEMMING. 
Winter  and  summer  pelage. 


short,  and  quite  hidden  in  the  fur;  the  legs  are  short,  the  feet 
rat-like,  and  the  tail  is  so  very  short  that  it  also  is  half  hidden 
by  the  fur.  The  fur  is  long,  fluffy,  and  fine;  brown,  brown- 
ish gray,  or  mottled  in  summer,  but  snow-white  in  winter. 
The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  4  to  5  inches,  and  of  the 
tail  J/2  inch. 

The  Lemming  is  found  from  Latitude  56°  northward  to 
the  whole  arctic  coast;    in  Labrador,  Greenland,  the  arctic 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 

islands,  and  on  as  far  north  as  man  has  ever  gone  on  land. 
It  prefers  open,  dry,  moss-covered  uplands,  and  is  not  found 
in  timbered  regions.  Often  a  district  of  acceptable  ground 
is  covered  with  a  wide-spreading  network  of  runways,  just 
below  the  surface.  Mr.  C.  H.  Townsend,  who  has  kept  them 
in  captivity,  says  they  are  kind-spirited  and  sociable  little 
creatures,  fond  of  attention,  and  much  given  to  standing  up 
and  hopping  about  on  their  hind  legs.  In  summer  they  store 
up  supplies  of  vegetable  food  in  their  runways  for  use  in 
winter. 

THE  LEMMING  MOUSE,  or  FALSE  LEMMING,  is  interest- 
ing chiefly  because  it  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  true 
lemmings  and  the  mice.  Its  ears  are  very  small,  and  do  not 
rise  above  the  fur  on  the  head.  The  type  species,  known  as 
COOPER'S  LEMMING  MousE,1  is  only  two-fifths  the  size  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Lemming.  It  inhabits  the  northeastern  United 
States,  from  Massachusetts  to  Minnesota,  and  southward 
to  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Indiana,  and  Iowa.  Its 
color  above  is  yellowish  brown  washed  with '  black,  with 
bluish-gray  or  whitish  under-parts.  Length,  3J4  to  4  inches; 
tail,  %  inch.  Other  species  of  Lemming  Mice  inhabit 
Canada,  Labrador,  New  Hampshire,  Washington,  Kansas, 
and  Alaska. 

THE  FIELD  MOUSE,  or  MEADOW  MousE,2  stands  as  a 
murine  monument  to  scientific  endeavor.  Since  1798  the 
genus  of  this  group — long  known  as  Ar-vic'o-la — has  been 
described  under  twenty-four  different  names,  and  the  type 
species  has  received  nineteen  names  besides  its  own!  But, 

1  Synaptomys  cooperi.  2  Microtus  pennsylvanicus. 


THE   FIELD  MOUSE 

through  a  century  of  misnaming  in  Latin,  its  original  En- 
glish name,  Meadow  Mouse,  has  stood  unchanged! 

The  trouble  with  this  genus  seems  to  have  been  due  to 
exaggerating  the  importance  of  trivial  characters,  molar  teeth 


FIELD  MOUSE. 


and  claws.  Externally  its  species  and  varieties  are  so  much 
alike  that  very  few  of  them  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
general  mass. 

The  typical  Field  Mouse  is  a  short-eared,  short-tailed, 
thick-set  little  animal.  It  averages  4J/£  inches  long,  with  a 
tail  1J/2  inches  long.  Its  color  above  is  reddish  brown,  while 
beneath  it  is  whitish  gray. 

It  is  found  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Dakotas,  feed- 
ing on  roots  and  grasses. 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 

In  severe  winters,  when  the  ground  remains  frozen  for 
a  long  period,  Field  Mice  are  sometimes  forced  to  feed  on 
bark,  and  frequently  kill  young  fruit-trees  by  barking  them 
near  the  surface  of  the  snow.  When  shocks  of  corn  are 
available  these  mice  live  high,  literally,  feeding  well,  and 
being  well  housed  at  the  same  time.  9  In  husking  shock  corn 
in  winter,  many  a  nestful  of  Field  Mice  have  we  helped  to 
turn  out  into  the  cold  world;  but  the  amount  of  grain  they 
consumed  was  so  insignificant  we  never  grudged  them  their 
food. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Field  Mice  of  various  species  in- 
habit nearly  the  whole  of  North  America  north  of  Mexico 
and  the  Gulf,  even  to  the  remote  islands  of  Bering  Sea.  I 
do  not  know  of  a  state  or  province  from  which  they  have 
not  been  recorded. 

THE  RED-BACKED  MousE1  is,  in  form,  very  much  like 
the  meadow  mouse,  but  in  size  it  is  smaller,  and  in  habit  it 
is  quite  different.  It  prefers  to  live  in  cool,  damp  woods 
and  timbered  regions,  varying  all  the  way  from  dark  swamps 
and  valleys  to  timbered  mountain  tops;  but  it  is  seldom 
found  in  open  country. 

They  are  found  from  Ontario,  New  England,  and  New 
Jersey  westward  to  California,  and  northward  through  Can- 
ada and  Alaska,  sixteen  species  and  five  subspecies.  They 
are  all  very  much  alike,  rather  slender,  and  more  graceful 
in  form  than  the  field  mice,  and  the  majority  are  reddish 


1  Until  recently  this  species  has  been  considered  identical  with  Evotomys  rutilu? 
of  the  Old  World,  and  has  been  so  called.  Now,  however,  our  species  is  considered 
quite  distinct,  and  is  called  E.  gapperi. 


CAPPER'S   RED-BACKED   MOUSE 

brown  above  and  grayish  underneath.  The  species  most 
common  in  the  eastern  United  States,  often  called  CAPPER'S 
FIELD  MOUSE,  is  found  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  is  3%  inches  in  length  of  head  and  body;  tail,  1%  inches. 


GAPPER'S  RED-BACKED  MOUSE. 

In  scientific  lists  of  the  mammals  of  North  America,  Red- 
backed  Mice  are  sometimes  called  Red-Backed  "Voles." 

THE  VOLES  of  the  genus  Phe-nac'o-mys,  are  small  brown 
mice,  mostly  of  recent  discovery,  about  the  size  of  the  red- 
backed  mouse,  in  color  usually  dark  brown  mixed  with  black. 
Nine  species  are  known,  extending  in  range  from  Labrador 
westward  to  Oregon,  Washington,  and  northern  British  Co- 
lumbia, and  also  down  to  Colorado.  None  are  found  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  There  is  no  special  mark 


230  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

by  which  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  them  from  their  nearest 
relatives,  the  red-backed  mice. 

The  species  most  widely  distributed,  and  best  known,  is 
the  NORTHWESTERN  VOLE/  the  largest  member  of  this  group, 
—a  grayish-brown  creature,  with  feet  and  all  under-parts 
white,  or  nearly  so.  It  inhabits  Alberta,  British  Columbia, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Washington,  and  south  central  Oregon. 
Length  of  head  and  body,  4  inches,  tail,  1%  inches. 

In  mental  capacity  the  WOOD  RAT,  PACK  RAT,  TRADING 
RAT,  or  BUSHY-TAILED  RAT2  is  the  most  wonderful  member 
of  the  whole  Rat-and-Mouse  Family,  at  least  in  North  Amer- 
ica. The  true  stories  of  its  pranks  are  almost  beyond  belief. 
Seemingly  its  chief  object  in  life  is  to  play  practical  jokes 
on  mankind;  and  any  rat  which  manifests  a  spirit  of  tolera- 
tion toward  man  surely  is  entitled  to  special  consideration. 

The  typical  Wood  Rat  is  a  large-sized,  big-eyed,  large- 
eared,  and  rather  handsome  creature,  without  the  mean,  vi- 
cious look  of  a  common  rat,  with  fine  yellowish-gray  fur, 
white  feet,  and  white  under-parts.  In  some  species,  the  tail 
is  covered  with  long  hair,  and  by  this  fact  alone  it  is  possible 
to  distinguish  many  members  of  the  genus.  The  Wood  Rats 
are  distributed  very  generally  throughout  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  are  also  found  in 
British  Columbia  and  Mexico.  Frequently  their  presence  is 
indicated  by  the  huge,  mound-like  nests,  from  2  to  3  feet  high, 
which  they  build  of  twigs,  grass,  leaves,  and  bark. 

These  animals  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  their 
nest-building  and  other  work  is  done  at  night.  The  most 

1  Phenacomys  orophilus.  2  Neotoma. 


EXPLOITS   OF  A   PAIR  OF  WOOD   RATS 

remarkable  thing  about  them  is  their  habit  of  entering  houses 
and  playing  practical  jokes  upon  the  inmates.  A  pair  of 
Wood  Rats  that  I  knew  by  reputation  at  Oak  Lodge,  in 
Florida,  first  carried  a  lot  of  watermelon  seeds  from  the 


NORTHWESTERN  VOLE. 


ground  floor  up-stairs,  and  hid  them  under  a  pillow.  Then 
they  took  from  the  kitchen  a  tablespoonful  of  cucumber 
seeds,  and  placed  them  in  the  pocket  of  a  vest  which  hung 
up-stairs  on  a  nail.  In  one  night  they  removed  from  a  box 
eighty-five  pieces  of  beehive  fixtures,  and  hid  them  in  an- 
other box,  and  on  the  following  night  they  deposited  in  the 
first  box  about  two  quarts  of  corn  and  oats. 

In  1907  Oak  Lodge  was  burned  to  the  ground  by  a  fire 
that  started  in  the  attic  story.     Mrs.  Latham,  the  owner, 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 

ascribes  the  origin  of  the  fire  to  Wood  Rats  and  the  parlor 
matches  which  they  undoubtedly  carried  up-stairs  and  ignited 
by  chewing.  It  is  said  that  in  Florida  other  houses  have 
been  burned  in  the  same  way. 

Western  frontiersmen,  and  others  who  live  in  the  land 
of  the  Wood  Rat,  relate  stories  innumerable  of  the  absurd 


FLORIDA  WOOD  RAT. 


but  industrious  doings  of  these  strange  creatures.  In  general, 
they  are  rather  harmless.  One  of  the  best-known  species  is 
the  FLORIDA  WOOD  RAT.1  It  belongs  to  the  round-tailed 
group  and  does  not  have  the  hairy,  squirrel-like  tail  of  some 
of  the  Western  wood  rats.  Its  upper  color  is  tan  mixed  with 
brown,  feet  and  under-parts  white.  The  length  of  the  head 
and  body  is  8J^  inches,  tail  6%  inches.  Distribution:  the 
southern  states  from  the  Carolinas  to  Texas. 

THE  LITTLE  HARVEST  MOUSE  looks  so  much  like  a  small 

1  Neotoma  floridana. 


MICE  PECULIAR  TO  THE  SOUTH  233 


house  mouse,  2J^+2  inches  long,  that  only  an  expert  can 
readily  recognize  it  at  first  sight.  The  ten  or  more  species 
are  scattered  throughout  the  southern,  southwestern,  and 
Pacific  states,  but  none  of  them  are  found  in  northeast- 
ern North  America.  The  usual  color  is  gray-brown  above, 
and  lighter  underneath,  and  the  best-known  example  is  LE 
CONTE'S  HARVEST  MousE1  of  the  south  Atlantic  states,  from 
Virginia  to  Florida. 

THE  RICE-FIELD  MOUSE*  should  have  been  called  a  rat, 
for  it  is  5  inches  long,  with  a  5-inch  tail.  It  is  strictly  a 
Southern  animal,  inhabiting  the  wet  rice-fields  and  swamps 
of  the  Gulf  states  from  Texas  up  to  southern  New  Jersey, 
its  northern  limit.  It  has  a  long  head,  a  sharp  nose,  a  shapely 
body,  prominent  ears,  and  a  long  tail.  Its  color  above  is 
bleached  brown,  but  its  under-surface  is  grayish,  or  dull 
white. 

This  mouse  is  partial  to  the  vicinity  of  water,  especially 
the  banks  of  rice-fields.  It  swims  and  dives  well,  and  some- 
times builds  its  nest  and  rears  its  young  in  interlaced  marsh- 
grass,  over  water,  and  far  from  dry  ground. 

THE  COTTON  RAT,  or  MARSH  RATS,  is  a  species  which 
any  country  may  Veil  be  without.  It  is  small  for  a  rat,  but 
courageous,  vicious  in  temper,  and  voracious  in  appetite.  It 
is  fond  of  flesh,  and  when  several  are  caged  together  the 
stronger  ones  do  not  scruple  to  kill  and  eat  weaker  rats  of 
their  own  kind.  In  length  it  is  the  size  of  a  large  chipmunk, 
6+4  inches.  The  upper  surface  of  the  body  and  head,  and 
outside  of  the  legs,  are  dark  mottled  yellowish-brown,  the 

1  Reithrodontomys  lecontii.        2  Oryzomys  palustris.         3  Sigmodon  hispidus. 


234 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


under-surface  and  inside  of  legs  dull  white,  or  brownish-gray. 
Cotton  Rats  are  found  from  North  Carolina  to  southern 
Florida,  and  also  in  Texas,  Oklahoma,  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 


RICE-FIELD  MOUSE. 

and  Mexico;   and  wherever  found  their  destructiveness  causes 
them  to  be  cordially  disliked. 

THE  WHITE-FOOTED  MOUSE,  or  DEER  MousE,1  is  well 
worthy  of  acquaintance.  It  is  distributed  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  upper  North  America,  except  the  arctic  islands  and 
the  Barren  Grounds.  On  account  of  the  changes  it  has  un- 
dergone, chiefly  in  color  shades  and  length  of  tail,  natural- 

1  Peromyscus  leucopus. 


THE  MOST  BEAUTIFUL  OF  THE   SMALL  MICE       235 

ists  now  recognize  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  about 
seventy  species  and  subspecies!  But  the  student  need  not  be 
discouraged  by  this  fact.  Every  White-Footed  Mouse  can 


COTTON  RAT. 


be  recognized  by  the  clean  white  or  light-gray  color  on  the 
under  half  of  its  body,  head,  tail,  and  inner  surfaces  of  the 
legs,  its  white  feet,  and  its  long  tail.  The  color  of  the  back 
is  usually  gray,  or  brown,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two. 

Of  all  the  small  mice  of  North  America,  I  consider  this 
the  most  beautiful,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting.  In  the 
eastern  states,  where  small  quadrupeds  and  birds  are  nu- 
merous, it  attracts  little  attention,  but  on  the  western  plains, 


236  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

and  in  the  desert  regions,  where  animal  life  is  very  scarce 
(and  rapidly  becoming  more  so!)  these  pretty  little  creatures 
seem  much  more  worthy  of  notice.  I  have  many  times 
found  them  nesting  in  cavernous  and  ill-smelling  buffalo 
carcasses,  and  in  the  brain  cavity  or  between  the  jaws  of 
buffalo  skulls  from  which  the  skin  had  not  been  removed  by 
the  hide  hunters. 

In  some  places  I  have  lain  awake  at  night  to  hate  mice, 
for  cause,  and  wish  them  all  dead,  by  all  manner  of  violent 
deaths;  but  on  a  bleak  and  wind-shaven  Montana  plain 
where  the  bleaching  skulls  of  thousands  of  slaughtered  buf- 
falo lie  staring  heavenward  in  mute  protest  against  man's 
inhumanity,  an  agile  White-Footed  Mouse,  scurrying  out  of 
its  warm  nest  of  buffalo  hair  between  the  jaws  of  a  buffalo 
skull,  appeals  not  in  vain  for  my  sympathy  and  protection. 
Out  on  the  Great  Plains  the  wrorld  always  seems  large  enough 
to  contain  us  both.  The  great  buffalo  range  of  1883  is  now 
so  barren  of  wild  life  that  to-day  even  wild  mice  are  objects 
of  interest. 

Many  times  in  their  wanderings  from  one  buffalo  carcass 
to  another,  these  mice  have  travelled  over  smoothly  shaven 
prairie  divides  miles  away  from  all  proper  shelter.  In  the 
West,  however,  they  are  found  most  frequently  in  the  brush 
and  timber  of  stream  valleys,  where  the  rank  weeds  and 
grasses  produce  seed  on  which  they  feed.  In  the  eastern 
United  States  they  are  found  in  nearly  all  agricultural 
regions.  They  are  active  climbers,  possess  a  wide  range  of 
intelligence,  and  nest  in  all  sorts  of  places,  from  ground 
burrows  up  to  hollows  in  trees  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 


INDUSTRIOUS   WHITE-FOOTED   MICE 


237 


Of  all  mice,  they  are  probably  the  most  active  climbers,  and 
in  fleeing  from  a  disturbed  home  the  mother  often  carries 
her  brood  of  young  clinging  to  her  body.  Their  food  is 


1.  WHITE-FOOTED  MOUSE. 

2.  LE  CONTE'S  HARVEST  MOUSE. 

seeds,   small  nuts  and  acorns,  grain,  and  dried  meat  when 
available. 

Once,  in  the  wilds  of  Montana,  we  hauled  some  old  logs 
to  camp,  for  fire-wood.  When  one  was  cut  up,  we  found 
in  it  a  nest,  made  chiefly  of  feathers,  containing  five  White- 
Footed  Mice,  snugly  housed  in  the  hollow.  Packed  close 
against  the  nest  was  a  pint  and  a  half  of  fine,  clean  seed, 
like  radish  seed,  from  some  weed  of  the  Pulse  Family.  While 


238  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

the  food  store  was  being  examined,  and  finally  deposited  in 
a  pile  upon  the  open  ground,  near  the  tent  door,  the  five 
mice  escaped  into  the  sage-brush.  Near  by  stood  an  old- 
fashioned  buggy,  which  presently  became  a  valuable  piece  of 
stage  property. 

Next  morning,  when  the  photographer  lifted  the  cushion 
of  his  buggy  seat,  and  opened  the  top  of  the  shallow  box 
underneath,  the  five  mice,  with  their  heads  together  in  a  droll- 
looking  group,  looked  out  at  him  in  surprise  and  curiosity, 
without  attempting  to  run  away.  But  very  soon  it  became 
our  turn  to  be  surprised. 

We  found  that  those  industrious  little  creatures  had 
gathered  up  every  particle  of  their  nest,  and  every  seed  of 
their  winter  store,  and  carried  all  of  it  up  into  the  seat  of 
that  buggy!  The  nest  had  been  carefully  remade,  and  the 
seed  placed  close  by,  as  before.  Considering  the  number 
of  journeys  that  must  have  been  necessary  to  carry  all  those 
materials  over  the  ground,  and  climb  up  to  the  buggy  seat, 
the  industry  and  agility  of  the  mice  were  amazing. 

By  way  of  experiment,  we  again  removed  the  nest,  and 
while  the  mice  once  more  took  to  the  sage-brush,  we  col- 
lected all  the  seed,  and  poured  it  in  a  pile  upon  the  ground, 
as  before.  During  the  following  night,  those  indomitable 
little  creatures  again  carried  nest  and  seed  back  into  the 
buggy  seat,  just  as  before.  Then  we  gathered  up  the  entire 
family  of  mice  with  their  nest  and  seed,  and  transported 
them  to  New  York. 

THE  GRASSHOPPER  MOUSE/  originally  described  by  Au- 

1  Onychomys  leucogaster. 


THE  MOLE  MOUSE 


239 


dubon  and  Bachman  as  the  MISSOURI  MOUSE,  and  often 
called  the  MOLE  MOUSE,  is  mentioned  in  order  to  caution 
Western  observers  against  confusing  it  with  the  preceding 


MOLE  MOUSE. 


species.  In  some  respects  it  strongly  resembles  the  white- 
footed  mouse,  being  all  white  underneath,  including  its  legs. 
It  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  large  fore  claws  and 
its  short,  stumpy  tail,  which  is  only  about  one-third  as  long 
as  the  head  and  body.  Its  upper  surface  is  brownish  gray. 
Its  fur  is  very  fine  and  soft,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called 
the  Mole  Mouse.  Its  length,  head  and  body,  is  4J^  inches; 
tail,  1%  inches. 


240  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

CHEEK-POUCH  MICE  AND  RATS 

Family  Heteromyidae 

This  is  strictly  a  Family  of  the  West  and  Southwest,  its 
members  being  found  only  west  of  Arkansas,  Iowa,  and  Min- 
nesota. It  does  not  contain  the  pocket  gophers.  Many  of 
its  twenty-six  species  are  desert  Swellers,  even  inhabiting 
Death  Valley,  California.  All  its  members  are  distinguished 
from  other  North  American  animals  (except  the  jumping 
mouse  and  pocket  gopher)  by  the  presence  of  a  large  and 
very  serviceable  hair-lined  pouch  in  the  skin  of  each  cheek. 
Barring  the  two  exceptions  noted,  this  character  alone  is  suf- 
ficient for  the  recognition  of  any  American  member  of  this 
Family. 

As  clearly  shown  in  the  full-page  diagram,  this  family 
may  be  divided  into  two  subfamilies,  an  arrangement  which 
is  very  convenient  and  helpful.  The  first  we  must  call  the 
POCKET  MOUSE  subfamily  and  its  leading  genus  (Per-og- 
na'thus)  contains  twenty-six  full  species,  and  fifteen  subspe- 
cies. All  are  distinguished  by  the  following  characters:  head 
large;  body  slender  and  graceful;  hind  legs  long,  and  fitted 
for  jumping;  tail  long;  large  external  cheek  pouches,  hairy 
inside,  and  not  connected  with  the  interior  of  the  mouth;  hair 
smooth  and  compact,  sometimes  intermingled  with  spines. 
These  mice  are  quick  and  active  in  movement,  and  some 
species  leap  with  considerable  power. 

Since  1839  the  TYPICAL  POCKET  MousE1  has  been  de- 
scribed again  and  again,  but  none  of  its  describers  have 

1  Perognathus  fasciatus. 


HABITS  OF  THE  KANGAROO  RAT 


241 


taken  the  trouble  to  give  it  an  English  name!  Hereafter, 
let  us  call  it  by  the  name  given  above,  because  it  is  the  type 
of  its  genus.  It  inhabits  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  the  Da- 
kotas.  Its  color  above  is  sandy -yellowish,  lined  with  black; 
underneath,  white;  and  these  two  color  areas  are  divided 
low  down  along  the  side  by  a  length- 
wise band  of  pale  yellow.  Length, 
3+%y8  inches. 

THE  KANGAROO  RAT1  subfamily, 
of  fifteen  full  species,  is  fitly  repre- 
sented by  an  elf -like  creature  which 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  at- 
tractive of  all  our  native  rats.  In  the 
dry  and  sterile  regions  of  the  great 
Southwest,  from  Oklahoma  to  the 
Gulf  of  California,  where  seemingly 
the  deserts  produce  nothing  but  sand,  cacti,  yuccas,  and  creo- 
sote bushes,  these  pert  little  creatures  hold  forth.  Apparently 
they  are.  both  fire-proof  and  water-proof,  for  no  amount  of 
heat  affects  them,  and  the  absence  of  water  does  not  seem 
to  depress  their  spirits  in  the  least.  Like  most  mice  and  rats, 
they  are  nocturnal.  Some  of  the  species  build  for  them- 
selves large  mounds  of  earth  and  gravel,  from  1  to  3  feet  high 
and  5  to  10  feet  in  diameter,  which  are  honeycombed  with 
burrows  and  runways.  These  dwellings  are  often  inhabited 
by  rattlesnakes  and  lizards,  and  doubtless  the  Kangaroo 
Rat  is  an  important  item  of  food  in  the  diet  of  the  desert 
rattler. 

1  Typical  species,  Perodipus  richardsoni,  of  western  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 


KANGAROO  RAT. 

Showing  the  very  large  cheek- 
pouches. 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 

The  Kangaroo  Rat  is  very  unlike  the  members  of  the 
Mouse-and-Rat  Family;  and  in  temper  no  creature  could  be 
more  unlike  the  domestic  rat.  Unlike  most  mice  and  rats, 
they  do  not  bite  when  handled,  but  they  are  so  delicate  that 
they  do  not  live  long  in  captivity,  unless  tended  with  ex- 


1  AND  2.  KANGAROO  RAT. 
3.  TYPICAL  POCKET  MOUSE. 


treme  care  and  intelligence.  They  stand  high  on  their  hind 
legs,  like  pygmy  kangaroos,  and  hop  about  with  their  front 
paws  tucked  up  close  under  the  chin,  almost  hidden  by  their 
fur.  The  tail  is  very  long,  has  a  showy  tuft  of  long  hair  on 
the  end,  and  is  used  by  the  animal  in  balancing  itself  when 
in  motion.  The  fur  is  soft,  silky,  rather  long,  and  of  a  tawny- 
brown  color  above.  Length  of  head  and  body,  4J^  inches; 
tail,  5%  inches.  The  cheek-pouches  are  large,  and  are  of 
great  use  in  carrying  sand  out  of  burrows. 


FEATS  OF  THE  JUMPING  MOUSE  243 

JUMPING  MOUSE  FAMILY 

Zapodidae 

THE  JUMPING  MousE1  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
all  our  small  animals.  In  form  it  is  a  slender -bodied  mouse, 
with  an  exceedingly  long  tail,  kangaroo-like  hind  legs,  and 
cheek-pouches.  Its  average  length  of  head  and  body  is  about 
3  inches,  and  tail  5  inches.  In  color  it  is  dark  reddish-brown 
above,  white  underneath,  with  smooth  compact  hair.  Al- 
though no  larger  than  a  house  mouse,  it  can  jump  from 
eight  to  ten  feet. 

When  a  farmer  boy  is  hauling  in  sheaves  of  wheat,  and 
a  small  animal  suddenly  makes  a  tremendous  flying  leap  from 
the  bottom  of  the  shock,  he  may  know  that  he  has  disturbed 
a  Jumping  Mouse,  and  the  chances  are  that  he  cannot  cap- 
ture it  by  hand.  In  these  long  jumps — perhaps  the  longest 
on  record  for  an  animal  of  equal  size — the  tail  is  as  necessary 
as  a  stick  is  to  a  sky-rocket,  to  enable  the  little  creature  to 
preserve  its  balance,  and  go  straight  ahead.  If  the  tail  is 
cut  off,  the  Jumping  Mouse  turns  over  and  over  in  the  air, 
and  perhaps  lands  upon  its  back. 

The  Jumping  Mouse  is  quite  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and 
is  seldom  seen  in  the  daytime.  It  feeds  on  seeds  and  grain, 
and  while  it  devours  great  quantities  of  weed  seeds,  it  in- 
flicts upon  the  farmer  no  damage  worthy  of  mention.  In 
the  autumn  it  stores  in  the  ground  quantities  of  food  for 
winter  use,  but  despite  this  fact,  under  certain  conditions  it 
becomes  so  thoroughly  dormant  in  winter  that  it  seems  to 

1  Zapus  hudsonius. 


244  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

be  quite  lifeless.  It  is  found  throughout  the  northern  United 
States  and  Canada,  in  wooded  regions,  from  New  York  to 
California,  and  as  far  north  as  Lake  Nushagak,  Alaska. 


JUMPING  MOUSE. 


Opinions  Regarding  Rats  and  Rat-like  Animals 

The  largest  rat-like  animal  in  America  is  the  COY'PU  RAT,1 
of  Central  and  South  America,  which  stands  9  inches  high 
at  the  shoulders,  attains  a  length  of  19  inches  head  and 
body,  tail,  13  inches,  and  weighs  8  pounds.  It  is  a  water- 
loving  animal,  almost  as  much  so  as  the  muskrat,  and  its 
thick  brown  fur  is  valuable.  Under  proper  conditions  it  is 
easily  kept  in  captivity. 

The   smallest   rodent   in   America   is   the   LEAST   POCKET 

1  My-o-cas'tor  coy 'pus. 


THE  POCKET  GOPHER  FAMILY  245 

MOUSE,*  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  which  has  a  total 
length  of  head  and  body,  1%  inches;  tail,  2M  inches. 

The  best  swimmer  of  all  rat-like  animals  is  the  MUSKRAT^ 

The  best  climber  is  the  TREE  RAT,3  of  southern  India. 

The  handsomest  rat  or  mouse  in  the  New  World  is  the 
KANGAROO  RAT,  of  the  southwestern  United  States,  figured 
on  page  242. 

The  most  humorous  of  all  rat-like  animals  is  the  TRADING 
RAT,  described  on  page  230,  which  delights  in  playing  prac- 
tical jokes  upon  its  human  neighbors. 

The  meanest  of  all  rodents  is  the  brown-coated  DOMESTIC 
RAT,  the  pest  of  civilization  everywhere,  which  was  sent  to 
man  as  a  perpetual  punishment  for  his  cruelties  toward  harm- 
less wild  creatures  all  over  the  world.  In  addition  to  its 
many  other  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  it  carries  the  flea 
whose  bite  produces  the  dreaded  and  terribly  fatal  bubonic 
plague.  San  Francisco  has  spent  vast  sums  in  ridding  her- 
self of  this  pest-carrying  animal. 

THE  POCKET  GOPHER  FAMILY 

Geomyidae 

THE  RED  POCKET  GOPHER4  is  the  most  important  repre- 
sentative of  a  large  family  of  burrowing  rodents  which  does 
great  damage  to  the  crops  and  lands  of  American  farmers. 
Whenever  you  see  a  brown-coated  burrowing  animal,  the 
length  of  a  small  rat,  but  twice  as  thick,  with  a  big  pouch 
in  the  skin  of  each  cheek,  a  swinish  appetite,  a  set  of  long 

1  Per-og-nath'us  fla'vus.  2  Fi'ber  zi-beth'i-cus. 

•3  Mus  ru-fes'cens.  4  Ge'o-mys  bur-sa'ri-us. 


246  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

claws  like  burglar's  tools  on  each  fore  foot  and  a  most  villain- 
ous countenance  and  temper,  you  may  know  that  it  is  a 
Pocket  Gopher.  The  pockets  in  his  cheeks  are  to  enable  him 
to  carry  extra  large  quantities  of  stolen  potatoes  and  seeds. 
When  once  you  have  learned  the  true  character  and  habits 
of  this  creature,  you  will,  without  being  asked,  carefully  re- 
frain from  calling  any  ground  squirrel  a  "Gopher." 

Most  wild  animals  have  some  redeeming  qualities,  but 
this  cannot  make  good  a  claim  to  one.  Gophers  are  not 
only  thieves  and  robbers,  but  they  are  so  ill-tempered  that 
they  even  hate  each  other,  and  the  old  ones  usually  are 
found  living  alone.  When  two  captives  are  placed  together, 
they  usually  fight  fiercely  until  one  is  killed.  Their  teeth 
and  front  claws  are  very  powerful,  and  working  together 
they  do  great  damage,  in  many  different  ways. 

As  a  family,  Pocket  Gophers  inhabit  the  whole  United 
States  west  of  Indiana  and  the  lower  Mississippi,  and  also 
a  large  part  of  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  Three  genera 
and  about  thirty-three  species  are  recognized,  and  while 
some  are  smaller  than  others,  and  some  are  gray  or  black 
instead  of  brown,  their  appetites  and  habits  are  all  equally 
objectionable.  They  spoil  meadows  by  throwing  up  innu- 
merable hillocks  of  loose  earth;  they  devour  great  quanti- 
ties of  vegetable  crops,  and  also  corn  and  small  grain;  they 
eat  the  roots  of  young  fruit-trees  of  nearly  all  kinds,  and  they 
destroy  canals  and  irrigating  ditches  by  honeycombing  their 
banks.  With  incisor  teeth  that  in  sharpness  and  strength 
are  like  steel  chisels,  a  Gopher  can  pare  off  all  the  roots  from 
a  young  tree  quite  as  neatly  as  a  man  pares  potatoes. 


A   DESTRUCTIVE   ANIMAL 


247 


Our  type  species,  the  Red  Pocket  Gopher,  says  Mr.  Ver- 
non  Bailey,  "is  of  much  greater  economic  importance  than 
all  the  other  species  combined,  for  the  reason  that  its  home 
is  in  the  fertile  prairie  region  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  em- 


RED  POCKET  GOPHER. 

bracing  Iowa, — which  is  its  centre  of  distribution, — Illinois, 
Missouri,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  Dakotas,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas.  Its  length  is  about 
7H  +  3  inches.  The  young  are  either  two  or  three  in  num- 
ber, and  there  is  only  one  litter  each  year. 

The  enemies  of  the  Gopher  are  the  weasel  and  the  gopher 
snake.1  Because  of  the  damage  done  by  Gophers,  farmers 
generally  wage  war  upon  them  with  traps,  strychnine,  and 

1  Pituophis. 


248  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

poisoned  grain.  In  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  other  states,  many 
thousands  of  dollars  have  been  paid  out  by  county  treasurers 
in  bounties  on  Gopher  scalps  and  tails.  No  animal  in  the 
West  is  more  universally  disliked,  or  more  diligently  des- 
troyed. 

My  acquaintance  with  the  Gopher  Family  began 
when  I  was  a  farmer  boy,  in  lo^a,  the  storm  centre  of 
Geomys  bursarius.  Having  trapped  a  few,  I  made  the 
mistake  of  supposing  that  I  knew  more  about  the  habits 
of  those  creatures  than  did  my  elders,  who  had  not.  In  an 
evil  moment,  I  announced  that  any  strong  boy  could  catch 
a  Gopher  by  digging  it  out  of  its  burrow,  and  my  large 
brother  offered  me  twenty-five  cents  if  I  could  prove  that 
claim  within  a  week. 

That  evening,  with  mattock  and  spade,  I  repaired  to  my 
father's  corn-field,  into  which  strange  Gophers  were  rapidly 
migrating  and  settling;  and  finding  a  fresh  hole  with  the 
owner  inside,  I  began  to  dig.  My  shepherd  dog,  Rover, 
assisted  me  all  he  could,  chiefly  by  keeping  me  company, 
but  also  by  digging  when  I  rested. 

We  dug  into  the  twilight,  and  later  on  we  dug  into  the 
night;  but  the  Gopher  kept  well  ahead  of  us.  Whenever 
we  paused  to  listen,  we  could  hear  him  digging  hard,  and  to 
our  dismay  we  found  that  he  knew  a  thing  or  two  about 
getting  on  in  the  world.  With  the  descent  of  black  darkness, 
our  hopes  of  overtaking  that  Gopher  descended  also;  and  then 
pride,  not  hope  of  reward,  was  all  that  spurred  us  on.  Would 
we  have  to  give  up  beaten,  by  an  ugly,  pig-eyed  old  Gopher? 

When  for  about  the  thirtieth  time  I  paused  to  wipe  the 


DIGGING  OUT  A  GOPHER  249 

accumulation  of  perspiration  and  prairie  loam  from  my  brow, 
Rover  suddenly  rushed  off  into  the  darkness.  In  the  corn 
rows  30  yards  away,  he  seized  something,  shook  it  vigor- 
ously, and  a  moment  later  came  trotting  back  to  me,  carry- 
ing in  his  mouth  a  large  Gopher!  The  beast  had  been  mi- 
grating into  the  corn-field,  and  Rover  simply  caught  him  on 
the  fly. 

Digging  operations  ceased  abruptly  at  that  point.  Thank- 
ing Rover  for  his  timely  assistance,  I  accepted  his  contribu- 
tion, and  we  marched  home  together.  When  I  exhibited  to 
my  brother  the  Gopher  that  we  had  secured  "by  digging," 
he  was  profoundly  surprised,  but  promptly  paid  the  money. 
Rover  looked  on  smilingly,  and  said  not  a  word;  but  we 
both  knew  then  that  in  catching  Gophers  steel  traps  are 
better  than  spades. 

TREE-RATS  AND  WATER-RATS 

Family  Octodontidae 

Our  steadily  growing  acquaintance  with  Cuba  and  South 
America  renders  it  desirable  to  include  here  several  Families 
of  mammals  that  were  unavoidably  omitted  from  the  original 
edition  of  this  Natural  History. 

THE  TREE-RATS,  or  HUTIAS  (Capromys),  naturally  chal- 
lenge the  curiosity  of  the  American  traveller  who  visits  Cuba, 
the  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  or  Honduras.  The  astonishment 
with  which  I  first  beheld  in  a  Cuban  tree-top  a  perfect  Jumbo 
of  a  rat,  nimbly  climbing  through  the  branches,  has  no  doubt 
been  duplicated  many  times  in  other  Americans.  The  com- 
mon name  is  pronounced  Hoo-te'ah,  and  there  are  nine  spe- 


250 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


cies,  one  of  which  (of  southern  Cuba)  has  a  prehensile  tail. 
THE  CUBAN  HUTIA  (Capromys  pilorides)  may  well  be  cited 
as  a  typical  species.  In  general  form  the  animal  looks  very 
much  like  an  undersized  raccoon,  with  a  long,  thick,  blunt- 
ended  and  almost  naked  tail.  Its  color  is  sombre  gray,  its 
hair  is  coarse  and  also  long  for  a  tropical  animal.  Its  head- 


COYPU  RAT. 


and-body  length  is  about  19%  inches,  tail,  10  inches,  and  the 
weight  of  a  full-grown  adult  is  about  14  pounds.  The  short, 
thick-muzzled  head  is  not  at  all  rat-like,  but  on  the  con- 
trary bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  capybara.  The 
Hutias  all  live  in  trees,  are  fairly  expert  climbers,  feed  mainly 
on  vegetable  food,  and  wherever  they  are  found  their  flesh 
is  eaten  by  the  natives. 

THE  COYPU  RAT  (Myopotamus  coypu)  of  South  America 
is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  rat-like  animals.  In  appearance 
it  looks  very  much  like  a  huge  muskrat  with  extra  heavy 
and  coarse  hair.  It  is  easily  kept  and  bred  in  captivity,  and 


AN  ANIMAL  WITH  A  HISTORY 

therefore  is  common  in  zoological  gardens.  It  is  highly 
aquatic  in  its  habits,  but,  unlike  the  disappointing  beaver, 
it  spends  about  half  its  time  on  land  and  therefore  can  be 
seen  to  good  advantage. 

This  animal  has  a  long  history.  Years  ago,  its  fur  was 
much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  "beaver"  hats.  Because 
of  this  demand,  the  Coypu  was,  years  ago,  so  persistently 
hunted  that  it  became  scarce;  and  then  a  substitute  for  its 
fur  had  to  be  found.  In  color  it  is  yellowish  brown,  and  its 
coarse  outer  hair  grows  through  and  overlies  a  coat  of  fine, 
soft  under-fur.  If  the  fur  of  this  animal  ever  should  attain 
a  value  of  $10  per  skin,  or  more  (which  may  easily  come  to 
pass),  it  will  pay  to  breed  it  on  a  commercial  basis,  for  it 
breeds  readily  in  captivity,  and  is  quite  hardy.  In  self- 
defence,  however,  the  author  now  gives  notice  that  he  posi- 
tively will  not  answer  innumerable  letters  of  inquiry  regarding 
this  animal — or,  for  that  matter,  any  other  fur-bearing  animal. 
He  has  fully  served  his  time  in  that  line  of  benevolence. 

Live  specimens  of  the  Coypu  Rat  cost  $8  each,  and  they 
can  be  purchased  of  Carl  Hagenbeck,  Stellingen,  Hamburg, 
Germany.  In  captivity  it  feeds  on  ears  of  corn,  stale  bread, 
cabbage,  and  the  bark  of  green  maple  and  poplar  branches. 

In  length  of  head  and  body  the  Coypu  Rat  measures 
about  19  inches,  and  its  round,  naked  tail  has  a  length  of 
about  13  inches  or  thereabouts.  Its  shoulder  height  is  8J^ 
inches,  and  its  weight  is  8  pounds.  In  its  South  American 
home  the  Coypu  inhabits  central  Peru  to  central  Patagonia. 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


THE  PORCUPINE  FAMILY 

Erethizontidae 

The  Porcupine  is  at  home  either  in  tree-tops  or  on  the 
ground,  but  it  is  always  a  slow-moving  and  dull-witted  ani- 
mal. It  is  easily  captured  or  killed  by  man,  but  not  so  read- 


BRAZILIAN    PREHENSILE-TAILED    PORCUPINE.l 

ily  overcome  by  wild  animals.  In  the  woods,  it  loves  to 
prowl  around  camps,  and  gnaw  every  scrap  of  leather  or  greasy 
board  that  it  can  find.  It  is  fond  of  the  bark  of  hemlock, 
beech,  and  cottonwood,  and  often  a  Porcupine  will  remain 
in  a  good  tree  until  he  entirely  strips  it  of  its  bark. 

THE  CANADA  PORCUPINE,2  which  is  black,  with  a  gray- 
tipped  storm-coat,   is  found  in  New  England,   New  York, 

1  Sphin-gu'rus  pre-hen-si'lis.  2  Er-e-thi'zon  dor-sa'tus. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PORCUPINE 


253 


Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  thence  northward  and  northwest- 
ward to  Fort  Churchill  on  Hudson  Bay.  The  West  and 
Northwest  are  the  home  of  another  species,  known  as  the 


Sanborn,  Photo.,  N.  Y.  Zoological  Park. 

CANADA  PORCUPINE. 

YELLOW-HAIRED  PORCUPINE.  1  Large  specimens  weigh  from 
25  to  30  pounds.  The  flesh  is  not  palatable  to  white  men, 
but  is  eaten  by  Indians. 

The  Canada  Porcupine  never  should  be  called  a  "hedge- 
hog,"   because  the  latter  is  not  a  gnawing  animal,  but  a 

1 E.  ep-i-xan'thus. 


254  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

small,  weak  insect-eater,  which  does  not  inhabit  America. 
A  full-grown  Porcupine  is  about  twenty  times  as  large  as  the 
common  European  hedgehog. 

Porcupines  can  not  shoot  their  quills,  not  even  for  1 
inch;  and  the  idea  that  they  can — or  ever  have — is  entirely 

erroneous.     When  attacked,  their  defence  consists  in  erect- 

• 

ing  their  quills,  and  striking  quickly  a  strong  sidewise  blow 
with  the  tail,  which  often  drives  many  quills  into  its  enemy. 
Strange  to  say,  wild  animals  are  about  as  lacking  in  original 
information,  or  "instinct,"  regarding  this  creature  as  dogs 
are.  Several  pumas  and  lynxes  have  been  killed  in  a  starv- 
ing condition,  with  their  mouths  and  throats  so  filled  with 
porcupine  quills  that  eating  had  become  almost  impossible. 

THE   VISCACHAS   AND    THE   CHINCHILLAS 

Family  Chinchillidae 

In  this  odd  South  American  Family  we  find  two  forms 
that  by  systematists  are  usually  placed  next  to  the  porcu- 
pines, but  in  their  natural  covering  they  are  very  far  re- 
moved from  those  always  inhospitable  creatures. 

THE  COMMON  CHINCHILLA  (Chinchilla  lanigerd)  has  fur 
as  fine  as  silk  and  soft  as  down.  The  touch  of  it  reminds 
me  of  the  flying  squirrel.  It  is  much  sought  by  the  fur- 
riers, and  by  ladies  of  discernment,  but  in  wearing  qualities 
it  is  so  delicate  that  the  winds  should  not  be  permitted  to 
visit  it  too  rudely. 

In  captivity,  the  Chinchilla  never  seems  to  be  quite 
rightly  placed.  Give  it  a  large  enclosure,  and  it  seems  de- 
fenceless and  ill  at  ease.  In  a  small  enclosure,  on  exhibition, 


THE   COMMON  CHINCHILLA  255 

it  is  perpetually  seeking  to  retire  from  view,  and  you  see 
little  more  than  a  pearl-gray  ball  of  fine,  silky  fur  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  cage.  It  is  very  unlikely  that  this 


THE  VISCACHA. 


delicate  little  creature  ever  can  be  bred  in  captivity,  with- 
out far  more  trouble  and  expense  than  its  fur  is  worth. 

The  Chinchilla  is  slightly  rabbit-like  in  its  form,  its  hind 
legs  being  extra  long;  but  there  the  resemblance  ceases,  for 
it  has  large,  rounded  ears  of  great  breadth  and  a  bushy  tail 
nearly  as  long  as  its  body.  Speaking  generally,  the  adult 
animal  (except  the  largest  species,  Chinchilla  brevicaudd)  has 
a  head-and-body  length  of  about  15  inches,  with  a  10-inch 
tail. 


256  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

There  are  three  species,  all  of  which  inhabit  the  Andes 
from  southern  Chile  to  northern  Bolivia,  and  live  in  bur- 
rows like  our  hoary  marmot  and  pika.  In  1912  C.  M. 
Lampson  &  Co.,  of  London,  sold  11,457  skins  of  "Real  Chin- 
chilla." 

THE  VISCACHA  (Viscacia  viscacia,  Molina)  is  an  animal 
that  arouses  in  the  author  painful*recollections.  Last  winter 
while  seated  at  his  chaotic  desk,  endeavoring  to  burrow 
through  a  mass  of  undigested  correspondence,  his  telephone 
bell  was  violently  agitated  by  a  stranger  who,  like  thousands 
of  others,  without  ceremony  demanded: 

' Tell  me  what  a  vicunia  is,  and  what  it  looks  like." 

The  imp  that  presides  over  the  author's  mental  switch- 
board plugged  in  for  a  South  American  animal  that  begins 
with  a  V,  and  instantly  the  author  responded: 

"A  vicunia  is  a  South  American  fur-bearing  animal  that 
looks  like  a  big,  overgrown  jack-rabbit  with  a  bushy  tail 
and  a  swollen  head,  and  is  covered  with  fine,  soft  fur  of  a 
mixed  gray  and  black  color." 

"Oh,  yes!     Thankyou  very  much.     Good-by!" 

That  was  all.  No  telephone  number,  no  name,  no  any- 
thing. 

Then  the  author  realized  with  horror  that  he  had  handed 
out  a  Viscacha  instead  of  a  big,  long-legged  vicunia — an 
animal  that  is  very  close  to  the  llama,  and  is  as  large  as  a 
mule  deer! 

That  unknown  and  unknowable  inquirer  never  called 
again. 

However,  the  Viscacha  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated. 


THE  AGOUTI  AND  THE  PACA  257 

North  America  has  nothing  that  looks  at  all  like  him.  His 
personality  is  dominated  by  a  big,  overgrown  head  very 
much  like  that  of  an  Australian  wombat — massive,  obtuse, 
and  all-pervading.  His  body  is  massive,  the  front  legs  are 
short  and  thick,  the  hind  legs  are  much  too  long,  and  the 
upper  line  of  the  body  is  much  too  round.  The  tail  is  short 
and  bushy.  In  figures,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  is 
about  22  inches  and  the  tail  is  about  8  inches.  The  colors 
are  an  indescribable  mixture  of  gray,  black,  and  brown. 

The  Viscacha  is  a  plains  animal,  and  lives  in  colonial 
burrows,  like  the  United  States  prairie-4 'dog."  The  colony 
as  a  whole  often  forms  a  pronounced  mound  that  on  a  level 
plain  is  rather  conspicuous.  These  animals  live  on  grass, 
roots,  and  stems  of  plains-growing  plants. 

Of  course  the  fur  trade  has  not  overlooked  the  fine,  soft 
coat  of  the  Viscacha,  and  in  1912  Lampson  &  Co.,  of  London, 
sold  8,114  skins  of  this  species,  under  the  name  "Bastard 
Chinchilla." 

THE  AGOUTI  AND    THE  PACA 

Family  Dasyproctidae 

When  you  are  hunting  in  one  of  the  dense,  hot-house 
forests  of  the  Orinoco  delta  and  the  dogs  scare  up  a  little 
animal  that  gives  a  shrill  squeak  of  fright  and  goes  scurry- 
ing away  through  the  low  brush  with  the  speed  of  a  scared 
rocket,  all  the  members  of  the  party  will  jump  nervously 
and  brandish  their  guns;  and  then  the  Venezuelan  member 
will  smile,  and  sang-froidedly  exclaim: 

"Ac-cou'rie!" 


£58 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


THE  AGOUTI  (Dasyprocata  agouti)  looks  like  the  tiny, 
hornless  deer  of  the  East  Indies  (Tragulus)  that  is  no  larger 
than  a  rabbit.  It  is  odd  that  two  genera  of  mammals 
should  look  so  much  alike  and  anatomically  be  so  far  apart. 


Photographed  from  life  in  the  New  York  Zoological  Park. 

THE  AGOUTI. 

The  Agouti  represents  a  very  odd  genus.  The  illustra- 
tion renders  a  description  of  its  form  unnecessary.  In  a 
land  reeking  with  ocelots,  pumas,  jaguars,  and  anacondas, 
the  wary  little  Agouti,  like  the  dikdik  antelope  of  the  East 
African  plateau,  lives  by  hiding  in  the  grass  and  plants  that 
cover  the  ground,  and  is  very  difficult  to  find  without  dogs. 
There  are  several  species,  inhabiting  southern  Mexico,  Cen- 
tral and  South  America,  all  of  which  are  regarded  as  edible. 
In  colors  they  vary  from  a  sooty  brown  so  dark  that  the 
animal  seems  almost  black  to  the  beautiful  bright  orange- 


THE  STRANGEST   OF  ALL  RODENTS  259 

yellow  of  the  Golden  Agouti.  A  sufficient  number  are  trapped 
each  year  to  keep  the  zoological  gardens  of  the  world  well 
supplied.  In  size  a  typical  Agouti  is  a  little  larger  than  a 
cotton-tail  rabbit.  Following  the  curves  of  the  body,  the  length 
of  an  adult  animal  to  the  base  of  the  1-inch  tail  is  22  inches. 
THE  PACA,  or  SPOTTED  CAVY  (Coelogenys  paca),  is  the 
Agouti's  nearest  relative;  but  it  is  very  much  larger,  and 
more  stockily  built.  It  may  be  recognized  at  sight  by  its 
chocolate-brown  body  color  ornamented  on  each  side  by 
four  conspicuous  horizontal  lines  of  white  blotches  or  spots. 
It  inhabits  nearly  the  whole  of  South  America,  but  of  course 
it  is  much  more  rare  in  some  localities  than  in  others.  There 
are  several  species,  and  the  commonest  is  usually  to  be  found 
in  every  large  collection  of  living  animals. 

THE  CAPYBARA    AND   THE  CAVY 

Family  Cavidae 

THE  CAPYBARA,  or  CHIGWIRI  (Hydrochoerus  capybara)  of 
the  South  American  rivers  is  the  strangest  of  all  rodents, 
and  also  by  a  long  margin  the  largest.  Its  nearest  relative, 
the  Cavy,  resembles  it  about  as  much  as  a  rabbit  resembles 
a  prize  hog,  but  no  more. 

The  Capybara  and  the  author  are  old  acquaintances; 
also  old  friends.  Years  ago  the  former  saved  the  latter 
from  complete  starvation  by  yielding  up  certain  skins,  skele- 
tons, and  flesh  to  the  cause  of  science.  In  1876,  in  the  dry- 
est  part  of  the  dry  season,  we  hunted  Capybaras  from  Sacu- 
pana,  in  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco,  with  Don  Alfredo  Dally- 
costa,  of  Ciudad  Bolivar.  It  was  an  aquai  ic  expedition,  aided 


260  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

by  dogs.  The  Capybaras  fed  and  flourished  in  the  tall  grass 
along  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  its  southern  tributaries. 
The  dogs  ran  along  the  shores  and  drove  the  game  into  the 
water,  where  it  was  immediately  pursued  by  the  members 
of  our  party.  It  was  like  hunting  the  sea-otter — chasing 
the  victim  and  compelling  it  to  dive,  and  keep  diving,  until 
so  exhausted  that  it  could  be  approached  by  a  canoe  near 
enough  to  be  harpooned  with  a  tiny  harpoon,  and  hauled 
alongside.  Our  Venezuelan  friends  carefully  preserved  and 
dried  all  the  flesh — all  of  it  that  the  ever-hungry  hunters 
did  not  consume  on  the  spot. 

The  Capybara  dives  and  swims  remarkably  well.  But 
for  that  ability,  it  could  not  have  survived  in  South  America 
until  this  period.  It  has  splay  feet  that  make  excellent  pad- 
dles, and  its  hair,  instead  of  being  thick  and  impossible  in 
water,  is  very  thin  and  very  coarse  and  absorbs  no  water. 
It  is  fair  to  suppose  that  the  heavily  haired  Capybaras  were 
easily  exterminated  by  their  enemies  of  the  land  and  water. 

In  form  and  in  size  the  Capybara  suggests  a  species  of 
wild  swine,  but  it  is  the  largest  of  all  the  members  of  the 
Order  Rodentia,  or  Glires.  Its  head  is  large,  thick,  blunt  on 
the  end  of  the  muzzle,  as  becomes  a  rodent,  and  its  upper 
body  line  sweeps  backward  and  downward  in  a  perfect  semi- 
circle from  the  saddle  to  the  tendon  of  Achilles,  without  any 
visible  tail  to  break  the  line.  An  adult  male  specimen 
stands  21  inches  high  at  the  shoulders,  measures  46  inches  in 
total  length,  and  weighs  105  pounds. 

Of  course  this  animal  is  a  strict  vegetarian.  In  disposi- 
tion it  is  not  only  good-natured,  but  even  affectionate  and 


THE   PIKA   FAMILY 


261 


fond  of  human  attention.  When  pleased  it  utters  a  low 
clicking  sound.  When  managed  with  kindness  and  a  fair 
amount  of  animal  intelligence,  it  thrives  in  captivity  and 


THE  CAPYBARA. 

lives  long.     A  specimen  now  in  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park  has  lived  there  about  ten  years. 

THE  PATAGONIAN  CAVY  (Dolichotis  patachonicd)  is  the 
capybara's  nearest  relative,  but  it  looks  very  much  like  a 
big  rabbit.  It  inhabits  Patagonia,  and  is  rarely  seen  alive 
outside  of  South  America. 

THE  PIKA  FAMILY 

Ochotonidae 

THE  PIKA,  commonly  called  the  LITTLE  CHIEF  "HARE," 
or  CRYING  "HARE,"1  looks  very  much  like  a  small,  gray- 

1  0-cho-to'na  prin'ceps. 


262  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

brown  rabbit,  7  inches  long,  but  it  is  neither  a  rabbit  nor  a 
hare,  and  represents  an  independent  family.  It  lives  high 
up  on  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  the  West,  from  just 
below  timber-line  up  to  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  It  finds 
shelter  in  the  crevices  of  rugged  masses  of  rock,  and  its  sharp 
little  cries  often  seem  to  come  from  so  many  different  points 
that  the  hunter  is  completely  confused.  In  form  this  strange 
little  creature  is  about  half-way  between  a  gray  rabbit  and 
a  guinea-pig;  and  it  has  neither  speed  nor  activity. 


TEE  HARE  AND  RABBIT  FAMILY 

Leporidae 

This  group  is  very  clearly  subdivided,  and  there  need  be 
no  confusion  of  ideas  regarding  its  North  American  members. 
Nevertheless,  early  writers  have  made  a  confusing  error  in 
the  improper  adoption,  for  one  important  group,  of  the  mis- 
leading name  Jack  "Rabbit."  It  should  be  Jack  Hare. 

All  the  American  members  of  this  family  are  separated 
into  two  general  groups,  the  Hares  and  the  Rabbits.  The 
accompanying  diagram  shows  these  subdivisions,  and  their 
relations  to  each  other. 

A  typical  HARE  is  big,  long-eared,  long-legged,  and  a  swift 
runner.  Very  often  its  color  changes  according  to  the  sea- 
son. It  does  not  burrow,  but  rears  its  young  in  a  nest  or 
"form." 

The  RABBIT  is  small,  short-eared,  short-legged,  a  weak 
runner  for  a  long  distance,  its  color  is  fairly  constant,  and  it 
lives  in  a  burrow. 


LARGE:  WHITE  IN  WINTER  AND 
GRAY  OR  BROWN  IN  SUMMER: 

/  .     EARS  AS  LONG  AS  THE  HEAD: 
f    i      LEGS  MODERATELY  LONG. 

HARE  ,   (LEPU5  AMERICANUS). 


LARGE:  EARS  SHORTER  THAN 
HEAD:  PELAGE  PURE  WHITE. OR 
BUT  SLIGHTLY  COLORED  IN 

SUMMER. 

ARCTIC  REGIONS. 


VARYING  HARE 
GROUP/ 


POLAR  HARE 

(LEPUS  ARTICU5). 


NORTHERN  UNITED  STATES 
AND  CANADA. 


RABBIT  GROUP. 


SMALL:  COLORS  CONSTANT;  NEVER 
WHITE:  LEGS  SHORT  WEAK  RUNNERS 

EARS  SHORT. 

UNITED  STATES  GENERALLY, 
MEXICO.AND  SOUTH  TO  COSTA  RICA. 


JACK  HARE 

(ORJACK"RABBIT)GROUR 


PRAIRIE    HARE, 

(LEPUS  CAMPE5TRIS). 


LARGE.  SLENDER;  LEGS  LONG 

AND  STRONG:  SWIFT. 

EARS  VERY  LONG  AND  LARGE 

COLORS  CONSTANT. 
S:W.  UNITED  STATES, 
PACIFIC  STATES* MEXICO. 


LARGE:  EARS  LONGER  THAN 
HEAD:  HIND  LEGS  LONG 
AND  STRONG:  COLOR 

VARIABLE. 

N.-W.  UNITED  STATES 


JACK;  "RABBIT1; 

(UPUS.,CALlOTIS) 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE 

HARE  AND  RABBIT  FAMILY 

IN  NORTH  AMERICA, 

SHOWING  THE  RELATIONSHIPS  AND 
COMPARITIVE  SIZES  OF  THE 
FIVE  GROUPS. 

Copyright   1903   by   W.  T.  Hornadiy. 


HARES  AND  RABBITS  265 

The  VARYING-HARE  GROUP  is  the  key  to  the  entire  fam- 
ily; or,  in  other  words,  it  stands  on  middle  ground  between 
the  rabbits,  the  polar  hare,  and  the  jack  hare,  and  is  re- 
lated to  all  three.  Naturally  this  group  should  be  studied 
first:  Its  type  species  is  the  NORTHERN  VARYING  HARE,1  of 
northern  New  York,  New  England,  Canada,  and  the  North- 
west Territories.  Its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  color 
varies  according  to  the  season,  being  pale  cinnamon-brown 
in  summer,  and  white  in  winter,  with  only  a  narrow  back  line 
of  brown. 

It  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  cotton-tail  rabbit,  but 
its  ears  and  legs  are  about  halfway  in  proportionate  length 
between  those  of  the  common  rabbit  and  the  jack  hare  of 
the  Southwest.  Large  male  specimens  measure  18  inches  in 
length  of  head  and  body,  tail,  2  inches,  and  weigh  6  pounds. 

Like  the  true  fur-bearing  animals,  Varying  Hares  have 
two  kinds  of  fur, — a  dense,  fine  and  soft  under-fur  through 
which  grows  a  storm-coat  of  thin,  coarse,  straight  hair.  It 
is  the  latter  which  gives  an  animal  its  color.  In  the  sum- 
mer these  long  hairs  are  black,  but  as  winter  approaches  they 
turn  white. 

The  habits  of  the  Varying  Hares  and  Rabbits  are  so 
nearly  the  same  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  them  sep- 
arately. They  all  require  brushy  ground,  broken  rocks, 
rugged  ravines,  or  tree  holes  in  which  to  hide  from  the  foxes, 
dogs,  men,  mink,  martens,  lynxes,  skunks,  and  birds  of  prey 
which  constantly  hunt  them  as  food.  But  for  their  keen- 
ness of  sight,  hearing,  and  scent,  their  swiftness  in  running 

1  Le'pus  a-mer-i-can'us. 


266  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

to  cover,  and  their  marvellous  agility  in  doubling  and  turn- 
ing when  pursued,  their  numerous  enemies  would  soon  ex- 
terminate them. 

THE  POLAR  HARE1  is  the  most  northern  species  of  this 
family.  Colonel  Brainard  found  its  tracks  at  83°  24',  which 
for  fifteen  years  remained  man's  "farthest  North."  In  the 
southern  portion  of  its  home,  this  hare  is  gray  and  white  in 
summer,  but  in  the  higher  polar  regions  it  is  white  all  the 
year  round,  like  the  majority  of  true  arctic  animals — the 
owl,  fox,  bear,  and  wolf. 

THE  PRAIRIE  HARE2  of  the  western  plains  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  of  the  same  species  as  the  so-called  jack 
"rabbit"  of  the  Southwest;  but  it  is  not.  In  form,  size,  and 
color,  it  may  be  considered  a  connecting  link  between  the 
vary  ing-hare  group  and  the  jack-hare  group,  and  its  separate 
identity  should  be  remembered.  Its  home  is  the  great  sage- 
brush plains  of  the  Northwest,  from  Kansas  to  the  Sas- 
katchewan, and  westward  to  Oregon,  and  northern  California. 
It  is  gray  in  summer,  but  changes  to  white  in  winter.  It  is 
a  large  species  (23  inches  long),  with  ears  longer  than  its 
head,  long,  strong  hind  legs,  and  a  white  tail  unmarked  with 
black,  a  character  by  which  it  can  be  readily  distinguished 
from  other  jack  "rabbits." 

On  the  treeless  plains  of  the  great  West,  where  it  is  often 
seen  without  any  other  objects  to  furnish  comparisons,  it 
sometimes  seems  of  immense  size,  and  a  Prairie  Hare  200 
yards  away  has  often  been  mistaken  for  an  antelope  sup- 
posed to  be  600  yards  distant. 

1  Lepus  arc'ti-cus.  2  Lepus  cam-pes'tris. 


THE  JACK  "RABBIT"  AND  THE   COTTON-TAIL      267 

THE  JACK  HARE1  (commonly  called  JACK  "RABBIT")  is 
easily  recognized  by  his  extremely  large  ears, — 5  to  6  inches 
long, — slender  body,  long  legs  and  athletic  build,  and  the 
black  mark  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail.  There  are 
seven  species,  all  very  much  alike,  which  inhabit  the  south- 
western quarter  of  the  United  States,  extend  northward  to 
Oregon,  eastward  to  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  southward 
to  Tehuantepec,  Mexico.  In  many  localities  wherein  wolves 
and  foxes  have  been  exterminated,  these  hares  have  multi- 
plied until  they  have  become  a  great  pest.  In  several  locali- 
ties in  California,  and  also  in  eastern  Colorado,  great  rabbit 
drives  are  made,  in  which  many  thousand  Jacks  are  slaugh- 
tered, and  given  away  in  large  cities  for  food. 

The  Jack  Hare  is  a  very  swift  runner.  In  eastern  Kan- 
sas, Professor  L.  L.  Dyche  once  saw  a  good  greyhound  chase 
a  Jack  on  fair  ground  for  about  WA  miles,  and  in  the  whole 
distance  the  hound  gained  only  about  25  yards.  The  hare 
finally  escaped  by  running  into  a  hollow  log  that  had  been 
left  on  the  prairie  by  accident,  and  was  the  only  shelter  within 
5  miles! 

THE  GRAY  RABBIT,  or  CoTTON-TAiL,2  is  a  typical  repre- 
sentative of  the  Rabbit  Family,  which  contains  twelve  spe- 
cies. Throughout  the  extensive  region  which  forms  its  home, 
—from  New  England  and  Minnesota  to  Yucatan, — it  refuses 
to  be  exterminated,  and  is  perhaps  more  frequently  seen  and 
more  widely  known  than  any  other  quadruped. 

All  the  true  rabbits  are  small,  and  for  long  running  their 
legs  are  short  and  weak;  but  what  they  lack  in  endurance 

1  Lepus  tex-i-an'us.  2  Lepus  syl-vat'i-cus. 


268  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

they  make  up  in  cunning  and  quickness.  To  aid  in  their 
preservation,  Nature  has  given  them  colors  that  blend  so 
perfectly  with  their  surroundings  that  a  rabbit  crouching 
low  is  often  compelled  to  run  to  avoid  being  trodden  upon. 
When  hard  pressed  for  a  nesting-place  in  a  city,  a  Gray 
Rabbit  has  been  known  to  dig  a  shallow  hole  in  the  smooth 
lawn  of  the  Smithsonian  grounds  at  Washington,  line  it  with 
her  own  fur,  and  rear  her  young  in  it,  within  forty  feet  of  the 
National  Museum  building  and  a  busy  roadway,  without 
discovery  by  dogs  or  men  until  the  mowers  found  the  nest 
almost  under  their  feet.  Every  year  one  or  two  pair  breed 
in  the  adjoining  grounds  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

When  a  rabbit  can  have  his  choice  of  hiding-places,  he 
chooses  a -burrow  directly  beneath  a  large  tree,  the  roots  of 
which  render  it  difficult,  or  it  may  be  impossible,  for  man  or 
beast  to  dig  him  out.  Crevices  in  rock  ledges  are  equally 
good,  but  he  often  finds  that  hollow  logs,  hollow  trees,  and 
brush  piles  only  lead  to  swift  destruction. 

He  never  sleeps  in  daylight,  when  enemies  are  afoot. 
If  the  Man-With-a-Gun  approaches,  he  crouches  low  and 
lies  as  still  as  a  stuffed  rabbit,  breathing  seldom,  winking 
never,  but  with  legs  all  ready  to  spring.  His  keen  eyes  and 
ears  measure  every  yard  of  his  enemy's  approach  until  the 
dead-line  is  crossed  when — zip!  Out  flashes  a  long,  gray 
streak, — flying  over  logs,  and  darting  through  openings  so 
swiftly  that  in  two  or  three  seconds  a  snow-white  signal 
flag  waves  an  adieu,  and  disappears. 

In  summer  hares  and  rabbits  feed  on  green  twigs,  soft 
bark,  buds,  grass,  leaves,  and  berries.  In  winter  they  are 


ANIMALS  THAT  BECOME  PESTS  269 

forced  to  subsist  chiefly  on  the  bark  of  bushes  and  the  ber- 
ries of  the  wild  rose.  Whenever  they  gnaw  the  bark  from 
young  fruit-trees,  it  is  a  sign  that  they  are  hard  pressed  for 
food. 

Rabbits  breed  very  rapidly,  often  raising  three  litters  a 
year,  and  if  not  kept  in  check  by  birds  of  prey  and  carniv- 
orous animals,  would  soon  become  altogether  too  numerous. 
In  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  rabbits  "introduced"1 
from  Europe  have  multiplied  until  they  have  become  a  fear- 
ful scourge,  and  are  now  so  numerous  it  is  impossible  even 
to  keep  them  in  check.  Possibly  the  use  of  their  flesh  as 
food,  and  their  skins  as  "fur,"  may  lead  to  an  abatement  of 
the  evil.  The  moral  of  the  rabbit  in  Australia,  the  mon- 
goose in  the  West  Indies,  and  the  English  sparrow  in  Amer- 
ica, is — before  "introducing"  a  foreign  species  of  bird  or 
mammal  into  America,  take  expert  advice, — and  then  don't 
do  it!  This  refers  to  species  able  to  live  wholly  by  their 
own  efforts  when  imported  and  set  free. 

Bibliographical 

The  following  popular  papers  are  of  special  interest  and 
value: 

On  Jack  "  Rabbits"— The  Jack  Rabbits  of  the  United  States.     By  Dr.  T.  S. 

Palmer;    pamphlet,   88  pages.     Bulletin  No.   8,   Biological   Survey, 

Department  of  Agriculture.     Washington,  1897. 
On  Gophers. — The  Pocket  Gophers  of  the  United  States.     By  Vernon 

Bailey;   pamphlet,  47  pages.     Bulletin  No.  5,  as  above,  1895. 

1  A  species  transplanted  from  one  country  to  another  is  said  to  be  "introduced." 


270  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

On  Prairie-" Dogs."— The  Prairie-Dog  of  the  Great  Plains.     By  Dr.  C. 

Hart  Merriam;    pamphlet,  14  pages.     Yearbook  of  the  Department 

of  Agriculture,  1901. 
On  Ground  Squirrels. — The  Prairie  Ground  Squirrels  of  the  Mississippi 

Valley.     By  Vernon  Bailey;    pamphlet,  69  pages.     Bulletin  No.  4, 

Biological  Survey,  Department  of  Agriculture,  1893. 


